[] TL: GASPING FOR CHANGE (CAR SMOG)
SO: Greenpeace UK (GP)
DT: 1992
Keywords: atmosphere air smog cars transportation health risks gp /

GASPING FOR CHANGE (GP)
   Vehicle Missions & Health
   Who Is At Risk
   Greenpeace UK

C O N T E N T S

GASPING FOR CHANGE

A CLIMATE OF COMPLACENCY

A PICTURE OF POLLUTION

PEOPLE AT RISK

A DETERIORATING FUTURE

FRESH THINKING ON AIR

MORE INFORMATION


GASPING FOR CHANGE

The quality of the air we breathe in the UK is deteriorating.
Air pollution caused primarily by emissions from motor vehicles
is on the rise. As more and more cars pour onto Britain's roads,
the health of people is increasingly put at risk from poor air
quality.

Yet we remain complacent to the threat. Official monitoring of
air quality in the UK is pitifully inadequate. So is the amount
of medical research into the relationship between air pollution
and the prevalence of certain diseases. No studies have
attempted to quantify how many people in England are at risk
from pollution pumped into the atmosphere every day.

To alert policy makers and the public to the growing threat to
human health caused by car emissions, Greenpeace commissioned a
scientific study to estimate the number of people in England who
are at risk from air pollution and where they live.

The research concentrated on two dangerous pollutants - ozone
and nitrogen dioxide. It used proven methodology developed by
the World Health Organization and American Lung Association to
identify groups at risk from air pollution. These groups include
pre-school children, elderly people, individuals with asthma,
pregnant women and unborn babies.

Analysis of the geographical spread of different air pollutants
was set against morbidity (disease) and mortality (death) data
from English regional and district health authorities. Due to
the lack of accessibility of data for Scotland, Wales and
Northern Ireland, the report was obliged to focus on England
alone. However high levels of air pollution have been recorded
in all areas of the UK which indicates that cause for concern
exists throughout the country.

The findings present a devastating picture. More than one in
three people are estimated at risk from the adverse health
effects of air pollution.


The significance of the results cannot be overstated. 19 million
people, or 39 per cent of the population, belong to at-risk
groups. 3 million are children under 5; 7.5 million are elderly
people and 650,000 are unborn babies.

Meanwhile, the private motorist - the principal polluter -
continues to be given unchecked freedom by official transport
policy. Forecasts for the build-up of both traffic and air
pollution over the next decade have grim implications for the
nation's health.

As more is revealed about the extent of the threat to human
health from air pollution, people are gasping for change.
Gasping to breathe fresher, cleaner, healthier air.

This can only come about through tough curbs on car use and a
new, stringent approach to air quality standards and monitoring.

A CLIMATE OF COMPLACENCY

Policy makers and the scientific establishment have become
complacent about the state of air quality in Britain today.
Forty years after the infamous London smog of 1952 killed 4,000
people, they fail to comprehend and respond to growing air
pollution from a new source - car emissions.

Back in 1952, the big threat was emissions from stationary
sources such as power stations and domestic fires - threats
which were tackled with a series of legislative measures. Today
the danger is different. The danger is air pollution from mobile
polluters, from motor vehicles. Growing scientific evidence
suggests this causes adverse health effects to exposed
individuals.

Car use in Britain is growing dramatically. More traffic is
clocking up more mileage on our overcrowded roads. Motor cars,
which pump out carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and volatile
organic compounds, have become the largest single source of
ambient air pollution in the UK.

Standards for air quality set by the European Community and
World Health Organization are frequently exceeded in Britain. In
December 1991 the highest nitrogen dioxide levels since records
began were recorded in London. Levels were more than double the
World Health Organization's one hour guideline.(1)

New technology is no excuse

The introduction of three-way catalytic converters on all cars
by the end of 1992 is often used as an excuse to remain
complacent about the dangers of air pollution caused by motor
vehicles. Catalysts are a first step in tackling air quality
problems, but evidence from the US shows that they are not the
solution. In California, where they were first introduced nearly
20 years ago, national ozone level standards are still regularly
exceeded.

The core problem remains that any benefits of catalytic
converters are likely to be offset by the heavy increases
predicted for road traffic in Britain over the next two
decades.(2)

There is also increasing evidence that catalytic converters may
not perform as well as claimed, especially in urban areas:

ù The catalyst takes a few minutes to reach operational
temperature, so emissions are uncontrolled on a significant
proportion of cars at any one moment in time.

. Urban driving is typified by short, congested journeys in
stop-start conditions, when emissions are at their highest.

. There is uncertainty over the effectiveness of the catalytic
converter over the lifetime of a car.

Better monitoring and tighter standards are needed to ensure
that older cars do not emit unacceptably high levels of
pollutants.(3)

The introduction in November 1991 of emissions testing on the
annual MOT test in the UK is unlikely to improve matters. This
is because the emissions limits are not stringent, there is no
testing of nitrogen oxides, and the car is idling during the
test which makes it harder to identify which vehicles pump out
pollutants in normal use.

Greenpeace's view is that technical solutions alone, such as
catalytic converters, cannot be relied upon to combat the
growing threat from air pollution. To wait for the ultimate
green car is a futile exercise: action must be taken now to stop
the rate of increase in motor vehicle use.

Lack of effective UK research

Despite growing concern over the impact of air pollution on
people's health, there have been no studies quantifying how many
people are potentially at risk from adverse air quality in the
UK - until now.

Nor have there been many studies examining the relationship
between the levels and mixtures of air pollution in this country
and the prevalence of certain diseases, particularly those
affecting the respiratory tract.

Other nations have been more diligent. In the US, the
Environmental Protection Agency has estimated the cancer risk of
motor vehicle 'air toxics' for a number of years.(4) The Swedish
Environmental Protection Agency has recently finalized a
research programme to assess the health risk from air
pollution.(5)


The World Health Organization has also analysed the health
impact of air pollution throughout Europe. Its conclusion:
millions of Europeans live in areas with air pollution severe
enough to cause thousands of premature deaths as well as to
leave many more chronically ill and disabled.(6)

In Britain, there has been almost no research into air pollution
and health for the past ten years. This stems in part from the
abolition of the Clean Air Council in 1979 and the Medical
Research Council's Air Pollution Research Unit in 1980.

A recent report by the Government's own advisers concluded "the
UK has lost the lead it once had... there is currently very
little research into the health effects of air pollutants in
general and ozone in particular underway in the UK".(7)

In this context, the launch of this Greenpeace UK report takes
on a special relevance in aiming to end a climate of
complacency. 

A PICTURE OF POLLUTION

The Greenpeace UK study adopted methodology developed by the
World Health Organization and American Lung Association to
estimate populations at risk from air pollution.

Existing research from California (8) has established that poor
air quality affects human health in the following ways:

. Aggravates respiratory and cardiovascular illness.    

. Reduces the lung's ability to exhale air. (9) (Loss of lung
capacity is part of the body's natural aging process but
exposure to air pollution speeds up this process).

ù Damages cells of the airways of the respiratory system.

ù Damages the lungs even after symptoms of minor irritation
disappear.

. Adds stress to the cardiovascular system, forcing the heart
and lungs to work harder.(10)

ù May contribute to the development of such diseases as
bronchitis, emphysema and cancer.

The Greenpeace UK study concentrated on two main air pollutants
-nitrogen dioxide and ozone. It defined as 'at risk' people in
England who are sensitive to the effects of air pollution due to
their physical condition, either because of age or existing
illness. The at-risk groups are as follows:

ù All children up to and including age 14, with children under
5 especially at risk.


ù Individuals with asthma.

ù Individuals with respiratory disease other than asthma. (11)

. Individuals with cardiovascular disease.

. People over 65. (12)

. Pregnant women and unborn babies.(13)

Populations at risk

To quantify the size of population groups in England at risk
from the effects of air pollution, it was necessary to find out
the number of individuals who belong to at-risk groups and
establish how many live in areas where they are exposed to high
levels of the particular pollutants to which they are
susceptible.

For example, nitrogen dioxide is particularly dangerous to
children and people with respiratory disease, including asthma.
Ozone similarly affects those groups, as well as old people.
(14)

Individuals classified at risk in the study are only those who
live in areas where the levels of air pollutants to which they
are susceptible exceed internationally accepted guidelines or
standards. The European Community air quality standard for
nitrogen dioxide and the World Health Organization one-hour
guideline for ozone were used for the purposes of the
research.(15)

To establish the number and geographical location of the
individuals at risk, it was necessary to collate morbidity
(disease) and mortality (death) statistics from a variety of
sources. Access to this data restricted the study to England.
Information on groups at risk from ozone was examined on a
regional health authority level, whereas for nitrogen dioxide
the data was examined by district health authority.

Geographical analysis

Obtaining a geographical picture of the spread of pollution to
calculate how many at-risk individuals live in areas of adverse
air quality was complex.

There is no central register of which bodies are monitoring
which air pollutants in the UK. The Department of Environment
has monitoring networks and some local authorities and
universities also carry out such work. Yet procedures used vary,
the resulting data is not readily available and compiling a
comprehensive picture of pollution levels involves piecing
together a patchwork of information.

The Greenpeace UK study used Department of Environment data on
air quality levels in relation to ozone and nitrogen dioxide.
Ozone, which is usually monitored in rural areas on a regional
basis, can build to high levels during hot, sunny days.(16)
Nitrogen dioxide, which is principally a local pollutant with
levels increasing with urban traffic density, can build up
dangerously during periods of low winds and poor dispersion in
winter.(17)

The record-breaking episode of nitrogen dioxide pollution in
London in December 1991 was a result of such conditions.
Although extreme, the incident reflects a pattern of exceedences
throughout the country, which posed a health risk to large
numbers of people in 1991.

PEOPLE AT RISK

The results of the study show that more than one in three people
in England are at risk from the adverse health effects of air
pollution.

As motor vehicles are now the main polluters, the official
forecasts for more cars and more roads suggest a grim future for
the nation's health.

The report estimates that:

Approximately 19 million people, or 39 per cent of the
population of England, are in at-risk groups. These groups
include:

3 million children under 5

nearly 6 million children aged 5 to 14

7.5 million elderly people

2 million asthmatics, of whom 700,000 are aged 15 to 64

700,000 bronchitics in the 15-64 age group

650,000 unborn babies.

Approximately 18 million people - 38 per cent of the English
population - are being placed at risk by ozone pollution. In
1989, people living in the south of England were exposed to
ozone pollution levels for twice as long as those living in the
north.

Nitrogen dioxide pollution increased by 35 per cent between 1986
and 1991. Where levels of pollution have broken EC guidelines
for nitrogen dioxide, almost one person in four is in an at-risk
group.

Approximately 650,000 unborn babies are potentially at risk from
carbon monoxide emissions from vehicles each year.

What these figures show is that one person out of every three in
England is known to be facing a health risk from air pollution. 

A DETERIORATING FUTURE

Given that our research shows that 39 per cent of the population
of England is at risk from the adverse health effects of air
pollution caused primarily by car emissions, consider these
scenarios for the future:

Government road traffic forecasts estimate that traffic will
increase by between 83 per cent and 142 per cent by 2025.(18)

There are currently over 20 million cars in Britain. By 2025
this figure could rise to 35 million.

No significant improvement in nitrogen dioxide emissions from
heavy duty diesel engines can be expected for several years.(19)
- even though 1992 will mark the peak of nitrogen dioxide
emissions from cars and there should be some reduction
thereafter with compulsory introduction of catalytic
converters.(20)

Predictions for air quality in London suggest that ground level
concentrations of nitrogen dioxide in the year 2000 may only be
5 per cent lower than 1983-84 levels.(21) As 70 per cent of the
predicted increase in traffic is forecast to happen after the
year 2000,(22) it is likely that thereafter the UK will continue
to experience rising air pollution levels - with consequent
adverse health effects for people in at-risk groups.

Numbers could be greater

Disturbing though it is, the estimate of one person in three
facing a risk from air pollution is likely to be on the
conservative side. This is because of factors which could not be
incorporated into this study, but which are worth consideration:

There is growing scientific evidence that exposure to
combinations of pollutants may increase adverse health effects
over and above exposure to a single pollutant.(23)

The study assumes that there are no adverse health effects below
the air quality standard or guideline used to define polluted
areas. Although unavoidable in this kind of exercise, this is an
oversimplification: even low levels of air pollution can
contribute to poor health.(24)

Air pollutants may cause disease as well as exacerbate medical
conditions which already exist.

The study only considers certain pollutants, which
underestimates the total health risks from air pollution caused
by cars. Pollutants from motor vehicles such as formaldehyde and
benzene have been classified internationally as causing
cancer.(25)

Certain individuals may be more sensitive to a given dose of a
pollutant, even though they are not identified in an at-risk
group. They include people taking vigorous physical activity,
such as sportsmen and women, people suffering from AIDs and
other diseases which damage the immune system, also current and
ex-smokers.(26)

The study only considers exposure to outdoor pollution. People
will still be exposed to high pollution levels indoors,
especially from tobacco smoke (carbon monoxide and nitrogen
dioxide) and gas cookers (nitrogen dioxide).(27)

It should be recognised, however, that not every single person
living in polluted areas (as defined by the study) will
necessarily be exposed when pollution levels are high. This too
is a factor which could affect the calculation of numbers at
risk.

Problems remain in analysing air monitoring data which is
patently inadequate. Not only is air pollution monitored
continuously in only a few English towns and cities, but methods
used do not provide a realistic indication of how much
individuals are exposed while going about their daily lives.(28)

SHEFFIELD 'AIR ALERT'

Up to the minute air pollution information is a reality at
Sheffield, where the City Council established Britain's first
early warning scheme. Radio broadcasts inform the public of
levels of ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide in their
city, every day at 10.30 am and again at lunchtime. This
information also goes out in the local press and is posted up at
the Central Library and the Town Hall.

Monitoring takes place at two major city centre roads and at a
shopping centre. The World Health Organization's guidelines
provide the basis for Sheffield's assessment of good, fair,
poor, or very poor air quality. Whereas ozone levels rise to 100
ppb (parts per billion) before the DOE describes air quality as
'poor', in Sheffield public health warnings are broadcast for
ozone levels over 60 ppb. As well as advising susceptible
populations of health risks, 'Air Alert ' discourages car use
when pollution levels are high.

In a sense, the two problems are intertwined: there continues to
be a slack official attitude to monitoring air quality while
pollutants from car emissions are on the rise and putting more
people at risk. Both problems need to be tackled now.

FRESH THINKING ON AIR

Air pollution caused by road transport requires fresh thinking
and immediate action in two areas: first, initiatives to curb
the damaging rise in the volume of traffic and second, steps to
improve air quality in the UK.

Pulling off the road

No single policy will reduce the number of cars on the road and
the distance they travel. But a combination of different
policies will contribute to a better, cleaner and healthier
environment. Greenpeace demands:

. More investment in a clean, safe and efficient public
transport system.

. A city centre ban on cars.

. An end to the road-building programme in the UK.

. Elimination of subsidies for motorists, and for company cars.

. Priority given to cyclists and pedestrians.

. A reappraisal of town planning to allow access without
dependence on the car.

Breathing more easily

Improving the quality of air that we are obliged to breathe
should be tackled on three main fronts:

Air quality standards:

ù A standard for all controlled pollutants needs to be set to
protect human health.

. The World Health Organization guideline on ozone should be
adopted in the UK as an initial minimum mandatory standard.
Given the international nature of ozone, the UK Government
should press for immediate adoption of this standard throughout
the European Community.

. Similarly stringent standards should be set for carbon
monoxide.

. Each air quality standard should be legally binding, with real
penalties if it is exceeded. Each standard should have a clearly
defined timetable for meeting it.

Air quality monitoring

The Government's current proposals to expand its pollution
monitoring network do not adequately address the scale and
urgency of the problem:

. A nationally co-ordinated system needs to be established with
continuing monitoring stations in every city. A bare minimum of
one monitoring station for each urban area with a populace of
250,000 is recommended.

. Monitoring stations must increase in number in proportion with
local population growth.

Pollution alerts:

. When air quality standards are breached, local authorities
should have the legal right to ban cars immediately from
affected areas in order to reduce emissions.

. There should be more effective dissemination of information
about air quality to the general public, with advance warnings
when air quality is predicted to be poor.

The above recommendations should be put into practice now.
Further research should not be used as an excuse to delay
action. However, in tandem with action, the following research
and public education programmes would be useful to assist in
giving us all a better environment in which to breathe:

. An investigation by the Medical Research Council into the
effects of air pollution on health in relation to different
patterns of living and working in different geographical areas.

. Detailed studies of the effects of carbon monoxide exposure
from air pollution on the unborn child.

. An extensive nationwide public information campaign by the
Department of the Environment to explain air quality issues.

. A public information campaign to enable people to identify
whether they belong to at-risk groups and to give advice to
those susceptible to particular pollutants on what action they
should take during air pollution episodes.

References

(1) Warren Spring Laboratory, 1992a, Initial Analysis of NO2
Pollution Episode, December 1991, Warren Spring Laboratory,
Stevenage.

(2) Munday P K, RJ Timmis, C A Walker, 1990, A Dispersion
Modelling Study of Present Air Quality and Future NO2
Concentration in Greater London, Report LR 731 (AP)M, Warren
Spring Laboratory, Stevenage.

(3) Fergusson M, Holman C, Barrett M, 1984, Atmospheric
Emissions from the Use of Transport in the UK, Volume One: The
Estimation of Current and Future Emissions, Worldwide Fund for
Nature, Godalming, Surrey.

(4) Carey P M, 1987, The Health Costs of Air Pollution,
Technical Report, US Environmental Protection Agency, Ann Arbor,
Michigan.

Carey P M, J H Somers, 1988, Air Toxics Emissions from Motor
Vehicles, US Environmental Protection Agency, Ann Arbor,
Michigan.

Clement International Corporation, 1991, Motor Vehicles Air
Toxics Health Information, Prepared for Penny Carey,
Environmental Protection Agency, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

(S) Nilsson R, 1990, Assessment of Health Risks Caused By Air
Pollutants, Research Programme Support Document by the National
Swedish Environmental Protection Board, Report 3891, Swedish
Environmental Protection Agency, Stockholm.

(6) World Health Organization Regional Office For Europe, 1990,
Impact on Human Health of Air Pollution in Europe, Submitted to
the Executive Body for the Convention on Long-Range
Transboundary Air Pollution, Economic and Social Council, 2729
August, United Nations Economic Commission For Europe, Working
Group on Effects, Geneva.

(7) Advisory Group Oil the Medical Aspects of Air Pollution
Episodes, 1991, Ozone - First Report, Chairman Professor Stephen
Holgate, Department of Health, Her Majesty's Stationery Office.

(8) State of California Air Resources Board, 1489a, The Air
Pollution - Transportation Linkage, How Vehicle Travel on Our
Roads and Highways Affects the Air We Breathe, Sacramento.

(9) World Health Organization, 1987, Air Quality Guidelines for
Europe, Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen

(10) American Lung Association, 1989a, "Breath in Danger"
Estimation of Populations At Risk Of Adverse Health Consequences
In Areas Not in Attainment with National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS) of the Clean Air Act, American Lung
Association, New York.

State of California Air Resources Board, 1989b, Adequacy of
State Wide Ambient Air Quality Standards - The Impact of Recent
Health Effects Studies, Staff Report, Sacramento.

Hoppenbrouwers T, 1990, Air ways and Air Pollution in
Childhood: State of the Art, Lung, 168 (suppl): 335-346

(11) American Lung Association, 1989a (see reference 10).

(12) American Lung Association, 1989b, Health Effects of Ambient
Air Pollution, American Lung Association, New York.

(13) Hoppenbrouwen T, 1990 and State of California Air Resources
Board, 1989b (see reference 10).


(14) American Lung Association, 1989a (see reference 10).

(15) European Community, 1985, Council Directive of Air Quality
Center for NO2, Official Journal of European Community, L 87, pp
1-7.

World Health Organization, 1987 (see reference 9).

(16) Department of the Environment, 1991, Digest of
Environmental Protection and Water Statistics, No 13 1990, Her
Majesty's Stationery Office, London. 
Broughton G F J, P C Willis, J S Bower, S E Laight, G S Denver,
J E Stevenson, J E Lampen, B P Sweeney, J Wilken, A G Clark, P
C Willis, B R W Stacey, G S Denver, S E Laight, CJ Wadden, 1492,
Air Quality in the UK: A Summary of Results From Instrumented
Air Monitoring Networks in 1990/1991, Warren Spring Laboratory,
Report No LR 883 (AP), Stevenage.

(17) Bower J S, J E Lampen, K J Stevenson, D H F Atkins, D V
Law, 1989, Results of a National Survey of Ambient Nitrogen
Dioxide levels in Urban Areas of the United Kingdom, Warren
Spring Laboratory, Report No LR 726 (AP) M., Stevenage.

Campbell G W., Cox J., Downing C E H., Stedman J R. and
Stevenson K., 1992, A Study of Nitrogen Dioxide Concentrations
in the United Kingdom Using Diffusion Tubes: July to December
1991, Warren Spring Laboratory, Report No LR 893 (AP),
Stevenage.

(18) Department of Transport, 1989, National Road Traffic
Forecasts (Great Britain) 1989, Her Majesty's Stationery Office,
London.

(19) Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, 1991,
Emissions from Heavy Duty Diesel Vehicles, Fifteenth Report, Her
Majesty's Stationery Office, London.

(20) Campbell G.W et al, 1992 (see reference 17).

(21) Munday P K et al, 1990 (see reference 2).

(22) Department of Transport, 1989 (see reference 18).

(23) Dockery D W, M Lippmann, J L Mauderly, D Pengelly, M
Raizenne, J Samet, R Schlesinger, J D Spengler, Sverre Vedal,
1990, Workshop Oil Health Effects of Atmospheric Acids and their
Precursors, Chaired by D Bates and M Utell, sponsored by the
American Lung Association, American Thoracic Society, Canadian
Lung Association and Canadian Thoracic Society, Santa Fe, March
22-24.

National Society For Clean Air, 1992, 1992 Pollution Handbook,
National Society For Clean Air, Brighton.
Read R, C Read, 1991, Breathing Can be Hazardous to Your
Health, New Scientist, 23 February, pp 34-37

(24) Lippmann M., 1989, Health Effects of Ozone: A Critical
Review, Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association.

(25) International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1989, IARC
Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans -
Diesel and Gasoline Engine Exhausts and Some Nitroarenes, Vol
48, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France.

Clement International Corporation, 1991 (see reference 4).

(26) Health Education Authority, 1991, The Smoking Epidemic,
Counting the Cost in England, Volumes 1-14, Health Education
Authority, London.

Health Education Authority, 1992, personal communication.

(27) Hickman AJ, 1989, Personal Exposures to Carbon Monoxide and
Oxides of Nitrogen, Research Report 206, Transport and Road
Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.

World Health Organization, 1987 (see reference 9).

(28) Campbell et al, 1992 (see reference 17).

Weisel C P, N J Lawryk and PJ Lioy, 1991, 'Exposure to Emissions
from Gasoline Within Automobile Cabins', Journal of Exposure
Analyses, 1991.

State of California Air Resources Board, 1989c, South Coast Air
Quality Management District, in Vehicle Characterization Study
in the South Coast Air Basin, Final Report, California Air
Resources Board, Sacramento.

Chan C C, H Ozkaynak, J D Spengler, L Sheldon, W Nelson and L
Wallace, 1984, Commuters' Exposure to Volatile Organic
Compounds, Ozone, Carbon Monoxide and Nitrogen Dioxide, Air and
Waste Management Association. 

MORE INFORMATION

This 'Gasping For Change' report has been prepared by Greenpeace
UK as part of its campaign to alert the public to the
environmental dangers and threats to human health caused by
unchecked car use.

An official transport policy slanted towards the private car and
a cultural addiction to giving the motorist unlimited freedom at
the expense of other members of the community - cyclists,
pedestrians, pensioners and children - has resulted in a grim
decline in environmental standards and the quality of life.

The adverse health effects of poor air quality caused by motor
vehicle emissions forms part of this steady deterioration. As
this report outlines, one in three people in England are at risk
now and predictions for the future are pessimistic.

Full scientific report

The full scientific report giving the background, methodology,
findings and recommendations of the 'Gasping For Change' booklet
is available from Greenpeace UK for the price of œ5.

If you would like to find out more about Greenpeace UK's work in
the area of car use, air pollution and health, or any of its
other campaigns, please contact: 

Public Information, Greenpeace UK, Canonbury Villas, London N1
2PN.

Adapted by Jeremy Myerson, from 'Populations At Risk', a report
by Andy Rowell, Claire Holman and Saran Sohi, Earth Resources
Research.

July 1992            ISBNI 871532 56 6        œ2.50