[] TL: THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY (GP) SO: Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. DT: March, 1991 Keywords: toxics pulp new zealand australasia greenpeace gp reports / THE CHANGE TO CLEAN PRODUCTION [Introduction in Maori, English text follows] Ki te Maori he taonga nga ngahere, nga wai o nga awa me te moana,e tiakihia ana, e tauwhirohia ana. Ko nga ngahere me ona koawa wai ko nga whanaungatanga o to tatau ao, e kore enei taonga e taea te wehewehe ona ahua, ki nga mea e kitea ana e hkore e kiyea ana, ki nga mea ranei rongona ana, e taea ranei te whakapa atu, kore ranei e taea te whakapa atu. He wahanga kotahi enei, e nohotahi katoa ana, i runga i te ahua noho ngatahi ki te heipo te tukinohia tetahi wahanga, ka pa te aitua ki te katoa o aua taonga, ki te whakaparahia tetahi wahanga, ka pa te riko ki ono wahi katoa. Ko nga ngahere me nga wai, he wahanga no te tinana o Papatuanuka, a, e rite ana tenei ki te mamae e pa ana ki te tinana ora, a, ka noho tenei hei patu ano i o tatau orranga. Na reira ka pa te ruhatanga ki a la. Ko nga nga ngahere me ona wai, nga puna ora o te wairua. I ahu mai tatau i ona kakahutanga, a, ko te mutunga iho ka hoki ano tatau ki taua whenua. Ko ia nei to tatou timatatanga, ko raua te puna o to tatau oranga, a, ka kapohia ano tatau e raua ina wehe atu tatau i tenei ao. Ko nga ngahere, ko nga wai nga wahanga noho orite ana, ma te hunga tangata anake ranei e tukituki. Engari he wahanga enei o te noho i runga o te rangimarie, a, ka taea e te hunga tangata ano e whakaora ake. Inaianei i nga mahi tutua a nga kamupene turaki rakau mai i te tinana o Papatuanuku, kua tukinohia taua ahua noho whirinaki ko te wai kehakeha o aua mahi ka rere ki roto o nga awa me te moana, ka takakino i te puna wai o raro whenua, a,ka whakararuraru i te noho whirinaki. Inaianei, ko te nuinga o aua miro rakau e tukino ana i taua noho whirinaki, ki ona wahi e tino kaingakautia ana e te Maori. Ko nga paru e puta ana i Tarawera i ahu mai i aua mira i kawarau. Ko nga paru e puta ana i Whirinaki e whakaparu ana i te whenua ake me te moana e rere tauawhi ana i Te Whanganui-a-Orutu. I Mataura e rere ana ki roto o te awa. Ko nga paru e puta ana i Kariori, e whakaparu ana i nga wai o Ruapehu. Ko nga paru e puta ana i whakatane, e paruhia ana te awa me te moana, te takiwa i whakatane ai a Wairakai a ia. Kei te Papapa e paruhia ana e ratou a te Manukau, ka tukinohia te noho a te kaitiaki o Tainui. E Whakaparu ana hoki ratau i te awa o kopakorahi ara kei Tokaroa, a, whakaoti atu ana tenei awa ki Waikato. I ia wahi e puta ana tenei ahua tukinotanga, a, e pa and ki nga wahanga katoa o Papatuanuku, a, e whakawehi ana i tona oranga, a, i tona tinana e ngoikore haere ana, te mutunga iho ko tatau ano te papa. Ko nga kamupene e whakararuraru nei i tenei noho whirinaki me matatau ki te kino o a ratau mahi. Me mutu ta ratou whakakoiri i a Papatuanuku. I te Maori e ako ana kia mau nga tikanga tiaki taonga, me pera ano te hunga e takakino nei i enei taonga. I runga i a tatau manaakitanga i a Papatuanuku, pera ano tana manaaki i a tatau. ============================== English Translation To the Maori, the forests and the waters of the rivers or the sea are gifts to be protected and nurtured. The forests and the waters are the interlinked parts of our world which form an indivisible entity. They cannot be separated into seen and unseen, heard and unheard, tangible and intangible. They are part of an interrelated system in which damage to one part is damage to another; in which pollution of one part inevitably affects another part. The forests and the waters are part of the body of Papatuanuku. And like the pain in our area of our mortal bodies will affect our well-being, so will the body of Papatuanuku suffer if it is damaged. The forests and the waters are the source of spiritual life. From the whenua which they clothe we have come, and to that whenua we will return. They are at our beginning; they are source of our sustenance; and they will claim us to our end. The forests and the waters are part of a balance which only humans can destroy. But they are part of a harmony which humans can restore. Today, as milling companies tear out trees from the body of Papatuanuku, they destroy that balance. As the products of that work flow into the rivers and sea and pollute the underground sources of water they disturb the harmony. Today, many of the mills destroy that balance in places of special importance to Maori. At Kawerau they pollute the Tarawera. At Whirinaki they pollute the earth itself and the sea that flows around Te Whanganui-o-Orutu. At Mataura they flow into the river. At Kariori they pollute the waters from Ruapehu. At Whakatane they pollute the river and sea where Wairaka saved the waka. At Te Papapa they pollute the Manukau and damage the kaiti of Tainui. At Tokaroa they pollute the Kopakorahi which ends in the Waikato. In each place, the damage spreads across all parts of Papatuanuku, and also threatens her survival. And as she already is weakened, so ultimately are we. The companies disturbing this balance must learn the costs of their actions: they must stop causing pain to Papatuanuku. As Maori learned to develop and adapt rules of conservation so must these ethics be now learned by those who seek to share the resources of Mother Earth. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. THE DARK SIDE OF NEW ZEALAND'S PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Paper is an essential product from a renewable source, but the production and use of paper products has considerable impact on our environment. Greenpeace is campaigning to achieve changes in these processes. The pulp and paper industry is one of the largest and most polluting in New Zealand and creates some of the most toxic effluent that any industry produces. It also uses a great deal of energy, consumes huge amounts of fresh water, leads to the establishment of vast monocultural plantations and produces a product most of which is thrown away. New Zealand is unique in its reliance on Pinus Radiata from cultivated forests as the major source of pulp. No other country in the world has its pulp industry based on man-made products. *Chlorine - Not So White Much of the harm from pulp production comes from the demand for bright white paper products. The whiteness is achieved by using environmentally damaging chlorine and other chlorine-based bleaching chemicals. Safer bleaching processes could easily be used if duller paper was acceptable. Less bright white means less environmental degradation through less toxic discharges, less energy consumption and less wood waste. It also costs less. As well as an end to chlorine bleaching Greenpeace seeks a reduction in the demand for paper products and an increase in the recycling of paper. Total paper and paperboard consumption in New Zealand isabout 575,000 tonnes a year. About a quarter of that is newsprint. About 135,000 tonnes of waste paper was collected in 1990 for recycling, 100,000 tonnes reused locally and 30,000 tonnes exported. The balance of 5000 tonnes is paper fillers and unusable fibres which are lost in the recycling process and dumped. Overall this leaves over 400,000 tonnes a year of woodfibres to be dumped around the country. Residues of inks removed during preparation of paper for recyling can include toxins such as heavy metals. But rather than discourage recycling because of this, Greenpeace believes it is better to develop and use non-toxic biodegradable inks. *The River Stinks Greenpeace in New Zealand began to campaign against toxic discharges from pulp mills into the Tarawera River in 1982. Effluent from the pulp and paper mills at Kawerau had caused the river to become contaminated with persistent poisons, to stink, and change colour. It also eliminated trout and most native fish species. Greenpeace accused Tasman of environmental vandalism and of putting profits before ethical responsibility.(15) The result was the adoption of the Tarawera River Management Plan, a voluntary agreement, leading to a reduction in the gross pollution of the river. The Tasman Pulp and Paper Enabling Act was amended and the Company given until 1995 to come under the same laws as everyone else. However, the lower Tarawera River remains black and little impact has been made on the release of poisons. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. THE GREENPEACE PULP AND PAPER CAMPAIGN FOCUS *Dioxin - No Margin of Safety Recently Greenpeace began to focus internationally on toxic chlorinated discharges, a campaign which now extends to eleven countries. Greenpeace had a major international impact in 1987 when it demonstrated the link between dioxin and the pulp and paper industry in the report "No Margin of Safety".(30) The report was based on information that had been withheld from the public but was leaked from the United States Environmental Protection Agency, as well as other documents. The papers showed that the most poisonous form of dioxin, 2,3,7,8-TCDD, was found in relatively high levels in fish downstream from kraft pulp mills which used chlorine for bleaching. Later it was learned that the paper products themselves were contaminated with dioxin. *Paper Can Be Pure Paper is a natural and bio-degradeable product made of a renewable resource. Greenpeace's view is that paper should be produced without any toxic or unnatural by-products, using a minimum amount of energy and water and making maximum use of the wood resource itself. It is also essential to minimize our use of all paper products. This means that we must reduce our demands for more paper, and we must recycle more and more effectively. *Chlorine Kills Greenpeace is focusing on the bleaching of pulp using chlorine. This process is responsible for the most insidious and long-term pollution from pulp mills and has, until recently, largely escaped recognition and regulation. Greenpeace seeks to work with the pulp and paper industry toward eliminating chlorine use in bleaching pulp and thereby eliminate the release of chlorinated hydrocarbons. *Precautionary Approach Greenpeace believes that if environmental degradation and its effects on human health are to be reversed in New Zealand then the only hope is for the Government and industry to adopt a new approach to environmental protection. This should be based on the precautionary approach to pollution, a reduction in the consumption raw materials and use of clean production technology. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. THE PRECAUTIONARY APPROACH AND CLEAN PRODUCTION *Inherited Pollution Historically industry has developed production systems that have shown little regard for the consequences on environmental and human health. We have inherited dirty production processes, hazardous products and an enormous amount of poisonous waste, and the resulting deterioration through the pollution of soil, air and water. Permitted emissions or discharges often catered more to the interests of industry than to the protection of the natural world. Regulation of these discharges was based on an approach that assumed that the environment has an on-going capacity to receive and absorb vast quantities of industrial and other wastes. This has been called "assimilative capacity". *Permissive Approach This traditional permissive stance does not represent a sound scientific approach to the protection of the environment. There is considerable inherent uncertainty when many chemical compounds and other waste are discharged into a variety of complex and often poorly understood biological systems and ecosystems. Often, what were once considered totally safe levels of discharge have later been shown to be unsafe. The permissive approach based on the assumed assimilative capacity of nature has not only failed, but has placed the environment and possibly the whole earth at risk. This has led Greenpeace to favour the precautionary approach. PRECAUTION AND PREVENTION The adoption of the precautionary approach would bring about significant reduction in pollutants, especially synthetic, toxic, persistent and bioaccumulative substances. This should occur even where there is now inadequate or inconclusive evidence to prove a causal link between discharge and effects. The limitations of science mean that such proof often comes too late to prevent damage, harmlessness must rest with the prospective polluter. Where doubt exists the responsible approach is to err on the side of safety, rather than risk damage. Precaution and prevention must be the dominant principles. CLEAN PRODUCTION The application of the precautionary approach would force industry to adopt clean production practices. Clean production can be defined as the use of systems which eliminate or avoid hazardous products or waste during the manufacturing process; use a minimal amount of raw materials, water and energy; and ensure that the final product does not generate waste after use. Hazardous processes, waste emissions and products should be phased out and replaced by environmentally sound processes. These must be compatible with biological process and ecosystems throughout the entire production cycle, including raw material extraction and processing, transport, and during manufacture and use, and ultimately disposal. *No Waste Current methods of waste disposal ranging from dumping in fresh and sea water, landfills, burning or chemical treatment are not acceptable as they contaminate the air, water and soil. Clean production eliminates the production of wastes at their source. Consequently, methods such as waste recycling or treatment are not part of the precautionary approach; nor is the diluting of the hazardous content of a waste. The use of toxic waste for fuel is also not part of clean production as this is just another source of industrial pollution. *Economic Benefits Economic benefits of clean production are considerable; the enormous costs associated with waste treatment and disposal are reduced; and social and health costs are limited. The economic benefits become especially apparent when the costs of environmental damage, which are traditionally excluded from economic analysis, are included as part of the real cost. (This is highlighted by the "polluter pays" principle which further encourages the implementation of clean production methods and technologies.) [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. FROM WOOD TO PULP TO PAPER - THE PROCESSES To make paper, trees are cut down and made into wood chips, which are boiled until the wood cellulose fibres can be separated. The fibres are then bleached to whiten the lignin, a tough, resinous adhesive from which wood receives its structural support. Once the fibres are separated to make the pulp any lignin remnant causes the paper made from it to yellow when exposed to light. Two different basic processes are used to produce pulp; either chemical, involving boiling the wood with chemicals; or mechanical, where the wood is ground to break up the fibres. PULPING *CHEMICAL PULPING The main form of chemical pulping used in New Zealand is the kraft process used by both the Tasman and Kinleith Pulp mills. In the kraft process wood chips are "cooked" in a causticsulphate bath which dissolves the lignin. This produces a strong brown coloured pulp which requires considerable bleaching and washing if a white product is desired. It is during bleaching using chlorine gas that the lignins, phenols and other organic substances combine with the chlorine to form large amounts of organochlorine compounds. Other bleaching compounds can be used but are often not favoured as the industry claims they do not produce products of sufficient whiteness. An alternative using oxygen bleaches alone, for example, produce a pulp that has the colour of ivory. A further drawback of the kraft process is that it is very wasteful of the wood resource as only 50% of wood fibres are used. Most of the remaining portion of the fibre and other wood constituents are burnt providing a significant source of energy for the process,but this releases considerable quantities of CO2 into the atmosphere, thereby contributing to the greenhouse effect. The Kraft mills are also major sources of air pollutants and in New Zealand they may emit the largest quantities of any industry. Two types of pollutants are released: the particulates and the gases. The particulates include sodium and calcium salts as well as fly ash. The gases give pulp mills their characteristic "rotten egg" smell, and incluce sulphur and nitrogen oxides, chlorine-based gases including chlorine, chlorine dioxide, chloroform and hydrogen chloride. (23). The kraft process relies on a high recovery level of chemicals for reuse but considerable toxic emissions still result. For example, air emissions include between 1 and 3 kg of sulphur dioxide per tonne of pulp produced.(2)Many tons of lime mud a day may also be dumped if the lime kilns cannot cope with the amounts required and large amounts of unuseable fibre are dumped in sludge lagoons. *MECHANICAL PULP Mechanical methods of producing pulp involve grinding the logs to produce the wood pulp. Mechanical pulp is less wasteful of trees than chemical pulp, as it converts up to 95% of the wood into pulp. Although it does not produce the same pollution problems as chemical mills, most of the remaining 5% of the trees is discharged in water and contains significant pollutants. Oxygen dissolved in the water is consumed by bacteria during the degradation of the waste from mills. If too great a load of biodegradable wood wastes are introduced into a waterway oxygen levels can drop to a point where fish suffocate in the water. The mechanical pulping process has considerable advantages over chemical mills as it requires lower capital costs, lower operation costs, allows smaller plants, involves more efficient resource use, has lower effluent loads and need not use chlorine bleaching. Thus mechanical pulp has almost twice the yield of kraft pulp and is cheaper to produce. There are disadvantages with mechanical mills including their high levels of consumption of electricty. Also the mills usually discharge the wood chemicals removed from the pulp rather than burning them. The quality of mechanical pulp is lower than chemical pulp as the grinding breaks the cellulose fibres and leaves lignin around the fibres. Developments in mechanical pulping have involved using a combination of temperature, pressure or chemicals, either separately or together, with the grinding process. These processes are given separate names: Thermo - Mechanical Pulp (TMP) is made by softening the wood chips with steam prior to passing them through the refiners.The heat in the steam can be used at a later stage to dry the pulp. Chemi - Thermo Mechanical Pulp (CTMP) involves first impregnating the wood chips with sulfur-based chemicals before steaming which extracts some of the lignin and resin from the wood and results in a stonger pulp.In CTMP sulphur is added during the pulping process. The resulting organic sulphur compounds, together with the wood resin acids as well as other wood waste, make CTMP effluent highly toxic to fish and very difficult to degrade. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. BLEACHING AND ORGANOCHLORINES To whiten kraft pulp it is necessary to treat it with lignin removers; first with chlorine gas, then it is bleached in several stages using chlorine dioxide or hypochlorite. On average between 30 to 50 kg of chlorine is used to produce every tonne of bleached kraft pulp. Up to 10% of this chlorine ends up in the mill's waste discharge as an array of toxic chlorine compounds called organochlorines. Dioxin is best known of the 1,000 or so organochlorines discharged by the paper industry. The concentration of organochlorines in pulp mill effluent is measured by using Absorbable Organic Halogen(AOX). This measure includes all the elements in the halogen family (bromine, fluorine, etc) but almost all the halogens in pulp mill effluent are organochlorines. Bleaching in New Zealand pulp mills produces a discharge of up to 5kg of AOX per tonne of bleached pulp. The total weight of organochlorines discharged can be calculated and on an average day New Zealand's two kraft mills discharge up to 50 tonnes of organochlorine pollutants every day.(35). This level of discharge should be reduced when NZFP Pulp and Paper Ltd. stops using chlorine gas in mid-1991, though organochlorines will still be released into the environment through the use of chlorine dioxide to bleach pulp to high levels of whiteness. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. DIOXIN AND HEALTH The pulp industry is probably the major source of dioxin production in New Zealand and the subsequent release of the chemical into our environment(10). The extent of dioxin contamination resulting from pulp production has only become known internationally in the past few years, but little testing has been done in New Zealand. Previously dioxin was largely associated with the herbicide 245-T. Dioxin usually refers to a group of chemicals consisting of 75 members. It often also includes a closely related 135 member chemical family usually called furans. The most toxic dioxin is 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-didenzo-dioxin, usually abbreviated to 2,3,7,8-TCDD or just TCDD, and the most toxic of the furans is 2,3,7,8-Tetra-Chloro-Dibenzo-Furan (TCDF). Twelve of the 210 known dioxins and furans are extremely toxic. Dioxin is formed during the use of chlorine for bleaching pulp to make it white. The combination of heat, chlorine gas and organic compounds from the wood provide ideal conditions for the formation of organochlorines which are an unintentional contaminant of both the paper products and the waste emissions. While the problem of dioxin contamination from pulp bleaching is becoming more widely acknowledged by the pulp industry the amounts of dioxin produced is dwarfed by the volume of other dangerous substances produced during chlorine bleaching. It is likely that the presence of further super-poisons will be identified in bleach wastes as well as in paper products but they have tended to be ignored as so little is known about them. Research has been focused almost entirely on the most toxic known form of dioxin, TCDD. There are other sources of dioxin contamination including 245-T( or Agent Orange) pesticides, disinfectants, solvents, treated wood, paper products, industrial incinerators and car exhaust fumes from vehicles running on leaded petrol. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. *DIOXIN AND THE ENVIRONMENT Dioxin TCDD is extremely poisonous and is the most toxic man-made chemical ever to be tested on laboratory animals. Animals given doses as low as one trillionth of their body weight have contracted cancer and birth defects. More seriously, TCDD magnifies the effects of other cancer-causing agents. There are no "safe" levels. In addition to this extreme toxicity, dioxins are some of the most persistent and bio-accumulative man-made chemicals ever released into the environment. Although dioxins do break down under some conditions, such as when exposed to intensive sunlight, they are very stable. Little is known about dioxin's effect on the ecosystem. Normally they do not go away but slowly move around the environment with levels of contamination in wildlife rising with every step in the food chain. Predators at the top of the food chain such as birds, marine mammals or fish such as trout, can accumulate very high levels. Daily doses 1000 times below the lethal dose cause profound delayed effects in experimental mammals. These include reproductive failure, cancer, and damage to the immune system of all animal species tested, including fish, birds and mammals, and it is therefore highly likely that these effects also occur in humans exposed to dioxin. Fish downstream from Kinleith mill effluents suffer from diseases such as fin-rot, gill and skin lesions and ulcers(17). Concentrations in water in the parts per quadrillon range, can cause a wide variety of toxic effects in fish such as rainbow trout. The combination of extreme toxicity and accumulation makes Greenpeace believe that there is no safe level of dioxin emission. The only way to prevent the build-up of these chemicals in the food chain is by the elimination of all sources of dioxins. In the pulp and paper industry the solution to this and other organochlorine contamination is to completely eliminate all chlorine-based bleaching. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. *HUMAN HEALTH Dioxins are readily absorbed straight through the skin or through the lungs from contaminated dust or smoke, or through food and drink,as it is highly fat-soluable and is readily absorbed from fat-soluable material including milk. It is accumulative in humans and builds up in the body where it becomes concentrated in the fatty tissue. Babies are most at risk. The most direct source of dioxin contamination in humans is from chlorine bleached paper products. Dioxins have been found in a wide range of paper products from which it can be absorbed directly. These include sanitary towels, tampons and disposable nappies, coffee filters and tea bags. Dioxin contamination in paper products is widespread.(27) A Health Department study showed that tests on human breast milk taken from 38 New Zealand women showed low to mid-range levels of chemical contamination, including dioxins and furans. However, the ranges for individuals varied from low to levels comparable with the highest from overseas studies, showing that some individuals do have significant levels of contamination. The report concluded that New Zealanders should concentrate on reducing, where possible, further release of these materials into the environment (11). The standard paper industry line on dioxin is that there is no evidence that it causes cancer in humans. However this conclusion has been recently shown to be based on fraudulent results (36). The results of the key studies of dioxin's toxicity which had suggested that dioxins were not particularly hazardous to human health were falsified. The data used was manipulated to conceal the high incidence of deaths from workers accidentally exposed to high levels of dioxin. These falsified studies have had a considerable effect in dulling public and official opinions about dioxin and their impact on regulatory processes internationally has been profound. This falsification of information has contributed to the now widespread contamination of the environment, including human tissue, with dioxin. At the same time further evidence emerged suggesting that TCDD is a potent human carcinogen. Enough research exists to prove that dioxin is extremely toxic and persistent; that levels in our environment and human milk are increasing; and that many health effects occur from exposure to even minute quantities over time. There is an urgent need to reassess the risks to human health posed by the whole range of organochlorines including dioxin. Greenpeace believes that it is impossible to establish a safe level of exposure to dioxin and that continuing releases should be prevented. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. *Other organochlorines identified in bleached pulp include: Chloroacetaldehyde: poisonous when swallowed, through skin contact and membranes; 2,4-Dichhlorophenol: poisonous if injected, moderately toxic when swallowed, and through skin absorption. Causes cancers and birth defects in experiments. Dichloromethane: suspected of causing cancer, causes reproductive failure in experiments. A severe irritant to skin and eyes. Causes mutations in humans. Trichloromethane: poisonous to humans. In experiments it has been found to cause cancers, tumours and birth defects. Causes mutations in humans. 1-2-Dichloroethane: poisonous to humans when swallowed. Moderately toxic when inhaled, through skin contact and membranes. When inhaled or swallowed it causes nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, ulceration or bleeding from the stomach. It is also a severe skin and eye irritant. Monochloroacetic acid: poisonous when swallowed, inhaled, injected into the bloodstream and under the skin. Irritant to the eyes and mucous membranes. Found to cause mutations. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] x =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. THE TASMAN PULP AND PAPER COMPANY. The Tasman Pulp and Paper mill at Kawerau is a kraft mill. It is New Zealand's biggest exporter of manufactured goods (that is pulp and paper) but it is also one of the country's biggest industrial polluters. Production at the mill started in 1955 and the initial capacity of the mill was 76,500 tonnes of newsprint and 37,500 tonnes of pulp a year. Today it produces about 200,000 tonnes of pulp (of which 130,000 tonnes is fully bleached) plus 350,000 tonnes a year of newsprint. Until 1971 the Tasman mill's wastes were piped directly into the Tarawera River. Since then secondary treatment has been installed, but aerated pulp wastes are still discharged into the river equalling one tenth of the river's flow. About seventy tonnes a day of unusable fibres are dumped in a sludge lagoon and one hundred tonnes a day of lime mud is dumped in the forest. Air pollution is a major problem for many living downwind of the mill. Today the quantities of waste discharged into the environment are many times greater than was originally intended under the Tasman Pulp and Paper Enabling Act. *TARAWERA RIVER POLLUTION Upstream from Kawerau the Tarawera River is healthy, clean and fast flowing, with diverse flora and fauna, although there is some geothermal contamination. The river has a wide range of recreation and industrial uses. Many of the fisheries within the river's catchment are of national significance and Lake Tarawera, the main source, is considered to be of international significance for it's Rainbow trout. Downstream from the discharges of Tasman, Caxton and the Kawerau Borough Council's sewerage outlet, the river is polluted. From here it becomes brown and has a sulphurous smell. The water quality and the biological conditions of the river are significantly affected and the water is characterised by low concentration of dissolved oxygen, high oxygen demand, increased temperature, high turbidity, change of colour from natural blue- green to a brown-black appearance and by smell and bacterial contamination (3:3.1). Seen from the air the river's confluence with the sea is marked by a white edged purple-brown area that can stretch out to sea for kilometres from the river mouth. Under the Tasman Pulp and Paper Company Enabling Act 1986 Tasman's discharges are exempt from the normal requirements that the natural colour and clarity of the river be maintained. The brown colour of the river comes mainly from the lignin bleached out by the kraft process, but it is the invisible toxic compounds that are of much greater long term concern. *Toxic Discharge Samples from the Tasman mill analysed by the DSIR have revealed an extensive range of polychlorinated dioxins and furans in mill waste samples. Low levels of the most toxic varieties, 2,3,7,8- TCDD and 2,3,7,8-TCDF were detected (except in the sludge samples). Analyses of eel flesh from the Tarawera River also revealed the presence of low levels of the most toxic organochlorines(28). Recent modernisation of the bleaching technology in use at Tasman has reduced some contamination. According to Tasman, the introduction of oxygen delignification at the mill has reduced the use of chlorine and chlorine dioxide by around 20%. Filtrate recycling and the secondary treatment of effluent in aeration ponds have also been introduced and should reduce contamination. Despite these improvements the effluent from the mill still has an AOX of 2kg which equates to a total discharge of at least 7300 tonnes of organochlorines per annum. The great majority of the organochlorines in this effluent and their toxicity remain unidentified and unknown. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. *AIR POLLUTION - PUBLIC UNREST The company's attitude to recent air pollution from the mill demonstrates that it puts it's own interests ahead of the environment or even consideration of the health risks. During the recent commissioning of new equipment Tasman allowed frequent emissions of highly toxic chlorine and chlorine dioxide, well in excess of the approved legal limit, to continue for over two years. In February 1990 chlorine dioxide was being emitted at 300 times the limit and excessive emissions were occurring very frequently according to the Health Department report. Even with a $10 million programme of improvement the emissions in June 1990 remained at six times the safety level. The toxic gas emissions raised considerable public concern in Kawerau. Tasman has been unable to guarantee that further excessive emissions would not occur at the mill. All they have done to allay concerns is to take steps to make the community alert system more efficient when toxic emissions occur. Company assurances that the gases were not dangerous and were unlikely to affect people in Kawerau because of such factors as dispersal, do not sound convincing when in March 1990 company officials apologised for the excessive discharges which caused eye irritations amongst Kawerau people. At the time the wind blew towards Kawerau and low clouds limited gas dispersal. Adopting the precautionary approach, Greenpeace maintains that no discharges of toxic gases, such as chlorine and chlorine dioxide should be permitted. The company should have acted responsibly and shut the plant down immediately. At a meeting of Kawerau residents unhappy with the toxic gases being vented from the mill stacks the residents were surprised to learn that Tasman conducts it's own tests for clean air compliance and monitors it's own limits. When asked to provide emission figures or details of leaks the company refused. The Health Department regional air pollution officer undertakes annual testing at the mill and provides the company with two days notice of his "random" visits. The community has expressed it's concern over the Health Department's lack of power over air pollution. GREENPEACE DEMANDS *Greenpeace requires that the Tasman Pulp and Paper Company make a committement to changing to CLEAN PRODUCTION. This mean that no toxic, persistant or bioaccumulative substances be released into the environment. As a priority the use of chlorine gas for bleaching must be stopped. *A full environmental audit specifying what goes in and what comes out of the Tasman plant is an immediate necessity. *Independent monitoring of environmental contamination in the air, ground water, Tarawera river and the Eastern Bay of Plenty with the results publicly available. *A study to determine the health of the residents of the Eastern Bay of Plenty,to see if there are any significant patterns of health problems and if so what caused them. *A redrafting of the Tarawera Management Plan with the contribution of National and local Government,the Area Health Board, Mill management and Unions, Tangata whenua and concerned citizens groups. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. CAXTON PULP AND PAPER MILL Caxton Paper Mills Ltd has three paper tissue mills and a chemo- thermo-mechanical pulp mill at Kawerau. The tissue mills produce high grade tissue used for disposable paper products. Hydrogen peroxide is used in bleaching although some Tasman chlorine bleached pulp is imported to give strength to some tissue lines. Greenpeace believes that where disposable paper products may be necessary they should be made from a lower grade unbleached recycled paper, not virgin fibre. In particular Caxton's toilet paper, including it's unbleached Nature's Choice, should use recycled paper, if it is to be regarded as environmentally sound. Wastes from the mill are at present discharged into the Tarawera River through seepage. Waste is dumped into large shallow infiltration basins which act only to crudely filter the leechate as waste seeps into the ground water and then the Tarawera River. Caxton plans to expand and modernise the present pulp plant. As part of this expansion programme Caxton are also building a new two stage aerobic waste digester to provide a high quality treatment of it's own waste as well as sewage and other domestic waste from Kawerau. While it is hoped that this will improve the quality of the discharges, the process remains untested. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. WHIRINAKI - CARTER OJI KOKUSAKU PAN PACIFIC LIMITED Carter-Oji-Kokusaku Pan Pacific Ltd (Pan Pac) have a thermo- mechanical pulp mill and a sawmill at Whirinaki, north of Napier. The unbleached pulp and sawn logs produced are all exported to Japan via Napier. About 10 million litres of water a day are drawn from the Esk river. The waste from this mill which has high levels of solids, is discharged, after filtering, into the sea. Whirinaki is the only pulp mill in New Zealand without settling or any secondary treatment. *Extreme Toxicity The discharged material is acutely toxic at extremely low levels. It consists mainly of fine cellulose fibre possibly accumulating in a relatively confined area due to wind and current. Unknown to most of the public it is highly toxic to fish. The toxic resin and fatty acids also found in the effluent have been known to kill fish in parts per billion in 96 hours. Unlike organochlorines, these substances will break down given sufficient secondary treatment. Greenpeace does not accept that discharge of wastes into rivers or the sea is environmentally sound and that this practise should stop. Bark and sludge from the filter, plus coal ash, are dumped in a massive landfill and held back by an earth dam. Spills have occurred and leachate from the dump is likely to be toxic and possibly contains PCP and associated dioxins. Testing of the leachate is urgently necessary. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. MATAURA NEW ZEALAND PAPER MILLS LIMITED. The Mataura mill in Central Otago was New Zealand's first big paper mill and is part of NZFP Pulp and Paper Ltd. It is situated next to the Mataura River, internationally reknowned as a trout fishing river. The treated mill effluent is discharged into the Mataura River which is adversely affected by the high level of suspended solids and toxins in the discharge. The company has a poor record of compliance with the conditions of their water right. Greenpeace considers the mill's secondary treatment of discharge to be inadequate. Mataura also uses chlorine bleached pulp obtained from Kinleith or imported from Georgia Pacific in New Orleans. The likely result of this is organochlorine contamination of the waste discharge as well as their paper products. The mill also recycles paper to produce recycled paper and may be planning to increase it's proportion of recycled paper produced. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. KARIOI - WINSTONE PULP INTERNATIONAL LTD. This is a modern CTMP plant near Ohakune in the Central North Island using slabs from sawmills and trees from Kariori and other local forests producing up to 125,000 tonnes of pulp a year. Most of the pulp is exported to Asia for use in magazine papers, wallpaper, paperboard, printing and writing paper and other products. Bleaching use is a single stage of hydrogenperoxide. Bark is burnt to provide heat for the pulp drier. It takes 3 million litres of water every day from Tokihuru stream. The mill effluents recieve primary treatment in a series of settling ponds before the highly toxic waste is discharged into the Whangaehu River.Solid waste is retrieved by screening and settling and is dumped in the companies landfill. The river originates in Tongariro National Park and during summer and autumn is frequently of low quality and very acidic when being fed by overflow from the crater lake on the top of Mount Ruapehu. During late winter and spring the water is of high quality,clear blue, cool, well oxygenated with low concentrations of suspended solids,biological oxygen demand and bacteria. Considerable discharge of resin acids which are toxic to river life occurs, and is likely to inhibit restocking of the river from side streams when the river is running fresh. However, as no chlorine is used for bleaching this does not produce organochlorine toxins. Recent developments in CTMP mills in Canada mean that zero discharge of toxins is possible. Greenpeace asks that Winstone Pulp International adopt Zero Discharge of Toxic Wastes as a goal and plan the transition within the next five years. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. WHAKATANE BOARD MILLS LTD. The board mill at Whakatane is part of the NZFP Pulp and Paper Ltd group. It is a mixed plant which recycles mixed paper waste, it's own groundwood and batch digested chemical pulp, and bleached kraft pulp obtained from Kinleith to produce a range of cardboards. The kraft pulp which constitutes about 30% of the paper source material, has been bleached with chlorine, resulting in the likely contamination with organochlorines, including dioxins, of the discharge and the paper products. Further contamination is also likely from recycled papers containing dioxins. After passing through a clarifier, waste from the mill is discharged into the Whakatane River, polluting it with fine fibres and associated toxins. This further adds to the despoliation of the Bay of Plenty. Until recently, whenever the clarifier was to be emptied the contents were dumped into the river, but now they are dumped in a large pond, and when dry, are moved to a landfill. The acrylic paper whitener paste used at Whakatane is of concern as it sometimes contaminates the river and the residues are dumped in the local rubbish tip. The whitener waste does not break down in the environment hence Greenpeace considers that it should not be produced. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. TE PAPAPA PAPER MILL NZFP PULP AND PAPER LTD. This is a modern paper recycling mill located in South Auckland. Te Papapa uses 67,500 tonnes a year of waste paper collected mainly in Auckland area to produce 60,000 tonnes of a year. Some contamination of Te Papapa's paper and waste products with dioxins from the reuse of chlorine bleached papers is likely. Some dioxin is also likely to end up in the Manukau Harbour, as about 3000 tonnes of waste fibres go into the Auckland sewerage system. Toxic de-inking wastes are buried in landfills. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. KINLEITH - NZFP PULP AND PAPER LTD. The NZFP Pulp & Paper Ltd kraft mill at Kinkeith near Tokoroa makes a variety of papers as well as producing bleached and unbleached kraft pulp. The first chemical pulp manufactured in NZ from locally grown radiata pines was made here when the pulp mill started in 1953. The mill produces about 450,000 tonnes of kraft pulp per year of which about 160,000 tonnes are bleached.Recycled waste paper accounts for about 15,000 tonnes of fibre import. As with most kraft mills cooking chemicals are substantially recovered and the remnants such as lignans are burnt providing energy for the pulping process. The mill operates under an archaic water right which only sets limits on the concentration of dissolved oxygen and suspended solids, acidity and temperature variation. However it allows the discharge of toxic wastes with virtually no constraints. Greenpeace considers that Kinleith management should surrender the right to pollute, and apply for a modern water right. There should also be a full environmental audit of the mill's operation, including full information on what happens to the chemicals used. The mill is undergoing a modernisation programme, as the management have recognized that in the future discharges will be more restricted, and that NZ will have to produce chlorine-free pulp to remain internationally competitive. The plan is to use oxygen based bleaching to replace all chlorine gas bleaching by 1991 and this is to be commended. However, discharges into the air, river and groundwater continue. Greenpeace's view is that the discharge of any toxic or persistant chemicals should not be allowed. *River and Lake Pollution The treated effluent is discharged into the Kopakorahi stream flowing into the Waikato River at Lake Maraetai. The 20Km stream and the 2Km lake arm are unclassified water, giving Kinleith an unrestricted licence to pollute these water bodies. The use of the Kopakorahi Stream Catchment as effluent channels dramatically alters the colour and clarity of the water, affecting the chemistry as well as the biology of the streams. In effect the Kopakorahi has been written off and used as a sewer without any protection as a natural waterway. The Waikato River acquires a distinct yellowish tinge from Kinleith mill, also causes the presence of foam and scum on the river surface, directly affects the growth of aquatic plants. Concerns have been expressed that the effluent is a brew of a very large number of organic compounds including orgaochlorines. Around 3500 tonnes of organochlorines are discharged into the river every year or over 10 tonnes per day. Potential toxic effects of mercury discharged in the 1970's on the users of the river's water are not known. (32) The mill effluent has a pronounced effect on plant and fish communities in Lake Maraetai particularly in summer. Numbers of fish and invertebrae were least in the areas of the lake affected by effluent. Small native fish species and trout do not livein the Kopakorahi Arm and non-native species tolerant of warm, poorly oxygenated waters domainate in polluted areas (19). Fish living near the outlet for the mill effluent in Lake Maraetai on the Waikato River have suffered from contact with discharged chemicals. In 1988 two Swedish scientists found fish living in the area near the outflow had leisons on them similar to those found a the outflow of a Swedish kraft mill. Ulceration of the body and haemorrhages of the skin and fins as well as other abnormalities were found (17). *Seepage Until recently, Kinleith's wastes with high organochlorine content and a strong colour, were put into a system of seepage ponds covering 86 hectares. From here the waste simply soaked into the ground, polluting the groundwater. On average up to 10 tonnes of dissolved organochlorines reached the effluent ponds each day. Public concern over seepage from the ponds began in the early 1960s and complaints of polluted bore supplies 2km away were reported in 1961 within one year of the ponds coming into use. Since then effluent constituents have been found in numerous underground water supplies, some up to 10km from the soakage ponds, and as far as away a Tokoroa. Two of the polluted bores are used as public water supplies and many are used as a source of water for farm animals. (6). Only general descriptions are available of what the Kinleith effluent dumped in the ponds contained. Virtually nothing is known about the processes that act on the waste once it is dumped in the ponds. NZFP Pulp & Paper Ltd. has initiated extensive investigations in response to public concern over seepage but the studies have been hampered by a lack of information and expertise. The studies have been revealed that the levels of Sodium and chloride, the two chemicals chosen it monitor pollution spread, are steadily rising and are approaching the highest desirable limit set by WHO and the NZ Department of Health at two sites (6). There is also evidence that organic contamination has spread and reached some sites and this is expected to spread as the assimilative capacities of the soils are reached. But there is virtually no information on the extent of this pollution, what the contaminants are or whether it may constitute an existing or potential health hazard. Test for dioxins or other organic pollutants in the contaminated water supplies have not been carried out (6). Because of the possibility of widespread contamination dairy herds farmed on land adjacent and possibly up to at least 10km away should be tested regularly for contamination with organochlorines including dioxin. Ultimately the contaminated groundwater is believed to discharge into Matarawa and Waioraka Stream Catchments flowing into the Waikato River. *Human Health Health of the workers at kraft mills also may be at risk because of the multitude of chemicals used, many of which are known carcinogenics. A study of 1071 deaths in kraft pulp workers in New Hampshire during 1975-1985 showed an increase in cancers of the digestive tract, lymphatic and blood system and peritoneum. Other cancer rates for the workers were lower than the general population. Results in NZ are not conclusive. Kinleith supplied Greenpeace with some health statistics covering the years from 1973 to 1988 on NZFP workers.Some significant differences between the health of active and retired workers, and the general population showed up, but the studies were not able to pinpoint the causes. Greenpeace would more sensitive analysis of statistics but point out that it is far better to identify potential hazards and take precautionary action than to try and fix the problem later. The mill is also a significant source of air pollution emmitting both solids as well as gases including toxic chlorine based gases, sulphur and nitrous oxides and others that give the mill its distinctive bad odour (23).However the No.5 Recovery Furnace is an example of modern clean technology that other mills could follow. The company also has used a hazardous waste dump since 1980 which includes above ground storage capacity. Along term solution that safely isolates these chemicals from any possible escape into the environment must be found. At present any leachate from the dump ends up eventually in the Waikato river. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. THE POWER OF THE PUBLIC *World consumption of paper cannot continue to increase. It is imperative that we avoid waste of paper - the demand must be reduced. NZ population - 3.4 million - consumed 159 kg of paper each in 1989. cf 12.6 kg in China, Japan 222.7 kg, India 2.9 kg *Stop thinking white. The main answer to the bleach problem is less bleaching. Less environmental damage results through the use of less chemicals and lower energy consumption. It also reduces the costs to the industry and results in less waste as about 10% of the wood fibres are lost during the bleaching process. Kraft mills could eliminate all use of chlorine bleaching and thus all organochlorine pollution if paper manufacturers and customers would be content with lower brightness for their products. Very few paper products need to be bright white in order to function well. *Recycling of paper products also offers potential for reducing bleaching and waste. Waste paper mountains are growing as paper waste collection capacity currently exceeds the ability of existing recycling mills to use it. Those who use paper products (and that includes all of us) can have a major influence on what is produced and the methods used. Most pulp and paper companies are well aware of the increasing customer demand for "green" paper products which are chlorine free and use recycled fibre. You can demand these safe products be made more available. *Disposable and non-recyclable products should be avoided. Most disposable paper products such as plates, cups, placemats, nappies and paper towels are not essential and in fact are dangerous because of the organochlorine content and the problems of disposal. Long lasting, reusable alternatives exist for all these items. You the consumer can change quality standards by demanding brown coffee filters and creamy coloured paper (with specks, to prove secondary fibre content). Demand a guarantee of chlorine free pulps for papers and sanitary products and do not buy products that do not meet this demand. Chlorine-free paper recycled products are still hard to find in New Zealand. Create a demand. *Paper production and waste can also be greatly reduced by reducing packaging. More than 40% of all pulp produced ends up as packaging material. Tissue products need to absorb water and unbleached pulp contains resin acids and other wood chemicals which prevent the fibres from absorbing water. This is often used by the industry as an argument in favour of chlorine bleaching, but pulp does not need to be bleached bright white to be absorbant. Hydrogen Peroxide bleaching for example, efficently removes the resin acids and is one of the more environmentally benign chemicals. [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##======= [] =start= THE GREENPEACE REPORT ON THE NEW ZEALAND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY Received March 20, 1991 from Greenpeace New Zealand, 240 Hobson Street, Auckland. SOURCES 1. Amendola, G., D.Barna, R. Blosser, L. LaFleur, A. McBride, F. Thomas, T. Tieran & R. Whittlemore 1987 The occurence and Fate of PCDDs and PCFDs in Five Bleached Kraft Pulp and Paper Mills Paper presented at Seventh International Symposium on Chlorinated Dioxins and Related Compounds, October 1987, Las vegas, Nevada. 2. Bay of Plenty Catchment Commision 1985 Tarawera River Management Plan, Policies for Wastewater Discharges. 3. Bay of Plenty Catchment Commision 1985 Tarawera River Management Plan, Volume 1 Objectives and Pollicies. 4. Bay of Plenty Catchment Commission 1985 Tarawera River Management Plan, Volume 2 Background Report. 5. Bioresearches Limited 1984 Assessment of Effects of Proposed Marine Disposal of Whakatane Board Mill Effluent A report for Whakatane Board Mills Limited. 6. Bird, G.A. 1986 An Investigation of Groundwater Contamination in the Tokoroa/Kinleith Area Waikato Valley Authority Technical Report No. 86/25 7. Campin, David N. 1989 Integration of Environmental Protection Measures Within a Kraft Mill Modernisation Program, Kinleith, New Zealand, Environmental Conference. 8. Carlsson, Lena 1990 Chlorine Compounds Accumulate on the Sea Surface Kemisk tidskrift no.6-7, June 1990, p.24 (the Journal of Chemistry Sweden). 9. Clayton, Susan 1983 Tarawera River Management Plan New Zealand Environment No.40. 10. Department of Health???? Sources of Dioxin in the Environment, A Background Paper, N.Z. Department of Health, Wellington. 11. Department of Health 1990 Media Release Study Shows Low Residue Levels in Nzers, N.Z. Departmentof Health, Wellington. 12. Department of Health 1990, Analyses of Dioxins in Sanitary Products, NZ Department of Health, Wellington. 13. Depledge, D. 1988, Hydrological Investigations in the Tokoroa/Kinleith Area, Waikato Valley Authority Technical Report No: 88/9. 13a. Dykes, Robert H., Eric Jeffries, Marc D Sherkin & Donald Stark, A survey of the Literature on Air Pollution and its Effects on Human Health, 1987 (short title) ????? 14. Goris, Kathleen ???? , Pulp Technology Report, Internal Greenpeace Report. 15. Jackman, Gordon, 1982, What Use Water Rights?, New Zealand Environment no: 35. 16. Kroesa, Renate, 1990, The Greenpeace Guide to Paper, Greenpeace Books. 17. Lindesjool, Eric & Jab Thulin, 1988, Diseases of fish living in the Kinleith Pulp and Paper Mill Effluent ????? 18. Lyons, Bob. 1989, Dire Straits: Pollution in the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia, Canada. Greenpeace Canada. 19. Meredith, Adrian, Mark Davenport & Garry Scrimgeour, 1988, Effects of Pulp and Mill Effluent on Macroinvertebrate and Fish Communities, Waikato Valley Authority Technical Report No. 1988/5. 20. Neilson, Alasdair H., Ann-Sofie Allard, Per-Ake Hynning, Mikael Remberger and Toma Viktor, 1990, The Environmental Fate of Chlorophenolic Constitutents of Bleachery Effluents, Tappi Journal, March 1990. 21. Rolfe, K.A. (Regional Air Pollution Officer) 1986, How the New Zealand Clean Air Act Relates to Kraft Pulp Mills. Paper presented to Appita Annual One-day Conference at Rotorua, November 1984. 22. Rolfa, K.A. (Regional Air Pollution Officer) 1988, Report to Kawerau Borough Council on Clean air Licence - Tasman Pulp and Paper Company, 22 November 1988. 23. Rolfe, K.A., (Regional Air Pollution Officer) 1990, Air Pollution From Kraft Pulp Mills and Its Control. 24. Simons, Marcus, Waikato Valley Authority, 1986, Memorandum to Mark Davenport on NZFP Fish Kill, August - September 1986. 25. Sprague, J.B. & Godley, A.G. 1989, Toxicity to Aquatic Organisms of Organochlorine Substances in Kraft Mill Effluents Background Report for Renewable Resources, Extraction and Processing Division, Industrial Programmes Branch, Conservation and Protection, Environment Canada. 26. Stuthridge, Trevor R., Wilkins, Alistair L., Langdon, Alan G., Mackie, Keith L. and McFarlane, Paul N., 1990, Identification of Novel Chlorinated Monoterpenes Formed during Kraft Pulp Bleaching of Pinus Radiata, Environ. Sci. Technology No. 24, 903- 908. 27. Svensson, Thure, 1987, Dioxins in Pulp and Paper Products, National Chemicals Inspectorate, Department of Science and Technology. Translated by Greenpeace Sweden. 28. Tasman Pulp and Paper Company Ltd, 1989, Background Information - Dioxin in Bleached Pulp and Pulp Mill Wastes, October 1989. 29. Taylor, W.A. (Water Resources Manager), 1989, Report to Standing Tribunal of Bay of Plenty Catchment Board on Whakatane Board Mill Discharges. 30. Van Strum, Carol & Merrell, Paul, 1987, NO MARGIN OF SAFETY: A Preliminary Report on Dioxin Pollution and the Need for Emergency Action in the Pulp and Paper Industry, Greenpeace USA Inc. 31. Wilkins, Alistair L. & Siva Panadam, 1986, Extractable Organic Substances from the Discharges of a New Zealand Pulp and Paper Mill, Appita Vol. 40 No.3. 32. Zuur B., 1989, The Impact of Kinleith Kraft Effluent on the Colour of the Waikato River and the Kopakorahi Stream, Waikato Valley Authority Technical Report No. 1989/24. 33. Report of Standing Tribunal on Water Right Applications by Caxton Paper Mills Limited, Commission Report No. 31, Bay of Plenty Catchment Commission Regional Water Board. 34. Report to Standing Tribunal of Bay of Plenty Catchment Commission, May 1987, Background Information in Relation to Water Right Applications 1989, 1990 and 1991 Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. 35. Bengtsson,B.-E. 1987. The use of chemical and biological parameters to charecterise complex industrial effluents. Regularity toxicolgy and Pharmacology 6:238-247. 36.Van Strum, Carol.& Paul E.Merrell Feb.1990. Fraud in Key Dioxin Studies. Alder Hill Associates . [Greenbase Inventory July 30, 1991 ] =======##=======