TL: THE SCIENTIFIC REPORT OF THE GREENPEACE ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION PROGRAMME 1986 - 1992 SO: GREENPEACE INTERNATIONAL, (GP) DT: 1992 CONTENTS 1. General Introduction 2. Research on Environmental Impacts of Human Activities in Antarctica 2.1. Studies on human impacts on the environment at Antarctic stations 2.1.1. Human impacts on the marine and terrestrial environment at McMurdo Station (USA) and vicinity 2.1.2. Human impacts around four Antarctic Stations on Fildes Peninsula, King George Island, South Shetland Islands 2.1.3. Investigations of contamination in the environment around other Antarctic stations, facilities and regions 2.1.4. Environmental impact studies at the site of World Park Base, Home Beach, Cape Evans, Ross Island 2.2. Feasibility studies for environmental monitoring 2.2.1. The use of dialysis membranes for measuring lipophilic pollutants in freshwater lakes and coastal areas 2.2.2. Dust disturbance of air-fields 2.2.3. Aerial photography 2.3. Anthropogenic litter in the Antarctic marine and terrestrial environment 2.3.1. Marine debris in the Southern Ocean 2.3.2. Marine debris on Antarctic shorelines 2.3.3. Marine debris on the continent itself 3. Research of Global Significance 3.1. Organochlorine pollutants in Antarctica 3.1.1. Organochlorine pollutants in the atmosphere A. Organochlorine pesticides in the lower atmosphere of the Southern Ocean and Antarctica B. PCBs and chlorinated pesticides in the lower atmosphere of Ross Island, and their up-take by marine organisms C. Atmospheric transport and deposition of organochlorines in Antarctica 3.1.2. Persistent pollutants in vegetation 3.1.3. Organochlorine pollutants in birds 3.2. Depletion of stratospheric ozone and effects on the marine ecosystem 3.2.1. Near surface distribution of plankton in southern high latitudes 3.2.2. Early spring transparency of Antarctic sea ice 3.3 Baseline measurements of atmospheric mercury in the Southern Ocean 4. Research of Unique Antarctic Significance in Biological and Earth Sciences 4.1. Contributions to biological research 4.1.1. Winter studies on the McMurdo Sound ecosystem A. Under ice population of zooplankton in McMurdo Sound during winter B. The diet of Pagothenia bernacchii in winter C. Seasonal abundance and growth of Limacina (Pteropoda) 4.1.2. Photo-identification studies on Southern Ocean whales A. Minke whales B. Orcas C. Humpback whales 4.1.3. Virological survey of pinnipeds 4.1.4. Studies on Antarctic birds A. Ship based observations in the Southern Ocean B. Observations in the vicinity of Antarctic bases C. Unusual mortality rate in a gentoo penguin population, Ardley Island, Antarctic Peninsula 4.1.5. Limnological properties of two ponds at Cape Evans during winter freezing 4.1.6. Dispersal of non-indigenous algae to, and within, Antarctica 4.2. Contributions to geological and geomorphological research 4.2.1. Geomorphological studies at Cape Evans A. Glacial history and periglacial features B. Soil temperature monitoring C. Atmospheric nitrogen precipitation in Antarctic soils D. Annual evolution of polar beaches 4.2.2. Glaciomarine sedimentation on the Antarctic Shelf 5. Contributions to Data Bases 5.1. Climatological observations 5.2. Aurora australis observations 5.3. Nacreous clouds 5.4. Noctilucent clouds 5.5. Sea ice reports to the US Navy/NOAA Joint Ice Center 5.6. Iceberg observations 6. References 7. APPENDICES [APPENDICES NOT AVAILABLE] 7.1 Appendix 1 - Inspection Sites: Greenpeace Antarctic Expeditions 1987-1991 7.2 Appendix 2 - Scientific Collaboration in Antarctica 7.3 Appendix 3 - Acknowledgements 7.4 Appendix 4 - Scientific Personnel: Greenpeace Antarctic Expeditions 1988-1991 FIGURES: Figure 1. Coast Ponds at Cape Evans Figure 2. Geomorphological map of McMurdo Station Figure 3. Area of sampling and sources of pollution, Fildes Peninsula, King George Island Figure 4. Area affected by human activity, Fildes Peninsula, King George Island Figure 5. Sampling locations, McMurdo Sound region Figure 6. Air sampling stations [NO FIGURES ARE AVAILABLE IN THE ELECTRONIC VERSION OF THIS REPORT] 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION The Antarctic Treaty Nations have recently recognised the special wilderness and scientific values of Antarctica and in October, 1991, they adopted the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, designating the region "a natural reserve, dedicated to peace and science." The Protocol includes a prohibition on all minerals activities, except scientific research, for the next 50 years. For the past six years Greenpeace has mounted an expedition to Antarctica as an integral part of the work to have the continent declared a World Park. This status would be achieved by a permanent ban on mining and the establishment of a comprehensive regime that protects Antarctica whilst allowing the occurrence of activities that pose acceptably low risks to the environment. Under this regime, Antarctica's value for studies of global significance and for unique Antarctic research is acknowledged and the need for scientific cooperation is emphasised. The adoption of the Protocol is a giant step forward, but until it has legally come into force and is implemented properly, Greenpeace plans to maintain the Antarctic Expedition Programme. The Greenpeace Antarctic Expedition Environmental Programme has included investigation, monitoring and documentation of human activities, environmental awareness and compliance with existing regulations, during inspections of over 50 scientific bases, abandoned bases, construction projects and other activities. Results of the work can be found in the annual Expedition reports (Greenpeace 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990a, 1991a, and 1992 in prep) whilst results of the monitoring of Southern Ocean fisheries have been reported to CCAMLR in 1990 and 1991 (Greenpeace 1990b, 1991b). The current report is confined to the actual impacts on the environment resulting from such human activities. The Greenpeace programme in Antarctica has further carried out and supported international environmental scientific research. It has been carried out primarily from the World Park Base at Cape Evans, Ross Island (Fig. 1) as well as from the Greenpeace polar vessel MV Gondwana. The present document reports on four years of this research. 2. RESEARCH ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN ANTARCTICA. 2.1. Studies on human impacts on the environment at Antarctic stations. Greenpeace has documented the impacts of some bases and other human activities in the Antarctic. Such documentation included descriptive and photographic records of each locality, including any wildlife. Local pollution levels have been measured in soil, effluents, surrounding coastal waters, marine sediments, benthos and plankton. Environmental studies addressing different aspects of human activities were also conducted in some areas thought to be heavily impacted through environmentally unsound practises, through the large scale of base operations, or through the proliferation of stations. Studies of impacts through base operations were carried out (1) at the largest Antarctic base, McMurdo Station (USA) and vicinity, (2) on Fildes Peninsula, King George Island where the local environment is subject to the cumulative impacts of four stations in close proximity to each other: Bellingshausen (USSR), Teniente Marsh (Chile), Great Wall (China), and Artigas (Uruguay), (3) in the environment around some other Antarctic stations, facilities and regions and (4) in the local terrestrial and marine environment at Cape Evans following dismantling of World Park Base and clean-up of the site. 2.1.1. Human impacts on the marine and terrestrial environment at McMurdo Station (USA) and vicinity. McMurdo Station and the adjacent area, including Scott Base, have been the subject of a study to determine the effects of human activities at this station. Mechanical destruction of soil was mapped and the total area affected was determined. A sampling programme was also carried out to investigate the presence of organochlorinated compounds, hydrocarbons, and heavy metals in sediments, soils and marine organisms. This latter project was done with the advice and supervision of P. Johnston and R. Stringer, at Queen Mary and Westfield College, University of London. Other samples collected in Erebus Bay and vicinity underwent analysis for persistent pollutants under the supervision of A. Soedergren, Ecology Dept., Lund University. (i) Methods A detailed geomorphological survey was carried out over the total area of the station. This survey included the mapping of superficial deposits, landforms, and micro-relief characteristics; an investigation of the present use of the area, and of processes affecting the soil surface and resulting impacts (Fig. 2). Samples of sediment and biological materials from Winter Quarters Bay and from Erebus Bay were analysed for organochlorine compounds. Samples of surface water and effluent and aqueous extracts of soil were screened for organic compounds using solvent extraction and Gas Chromatography with Mass Spectrophotometer detection (GCMS). The presence of heavy metals was also tested using acid digestion and Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS). (ii) Results (a) Geomorphology Soil surfaces free of permanent snow or ice at McMurdo Station can be classified into three broad categories according to the degree of mechanical impact: - Areas that have not been visibly disturbed. In these areas lack of visible disturbance can be attributed to the gradient of the slope (25-35o) associated with volcanic landforms. - Areas where only the soil surface has been disturbed. These areas are usually characterized by gentle or sub-horizontal slopes beyond the perimeter of the base. Common signs of human interference include: single bulldozer ridges, single vehicle tracks, paths, footsteps and small size surface litter. Physical impact on soils is caused by trampling, movement of vehicles, and small scale construction and operations e.g. antennae. Apart from the direct impact on the soil surface, human activities cause further impacts to these areas. Dust generated by extensive mechanical operations has spread over wide areas of permanent snow and ice cover, causing increased heat absorption leading to meltwater runoff accelerating soil erosion. - Areas where both soil surface and profile have been disturbed. In the central area of McMurdo Station (ca. 1km2) the soil profile has been affected by the construction of roads and buildings, and by earthworks covering waste dumps and stabilizing slopes. Soils, sediments, and rocks used for this work have been extracted from quarries around the station, often involving bulldozers and explosives. As a result the process of natural gradation has been accelerated by the removal and the replacement of natural materials. There are five distinctive areas within the station where the soil profile has been mechanically disturbed, bulldozed slopes (520,300m2 or 48%), soil storage areas (65,000m2 or 6%), landfill areas (54,000m2 or 5%), storage areas (162,600m2 or 15%) and operations areas (281,800m2 or 26%). It should also be noted that small fuel spills were ubiquitous in the vicinity of fuel storage and transport systems, vehicle refuelling tanks, vehicle parking sites, and workshops. Spills observed during the summer of 1989/90 ranged from small areas of fuel-soaked soil (several tens of square centimetres) to a pool containing ca. 100l fuel. (b) Organochlorine compounds Analyses of organochlorine compounds by Johnston et al. showed high concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), typical of an Aroclor 1260 technical mixture in the sediments of Winter Quarters Bay. In one sample, an extremely high level of lindane (gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane or gamma-HCH) was detected. Blubber, taken from a Weddell seal (Leptonychytes weddelli), found dead , was found to contain an elevated concentration of PCBs, while nemertean and polychaete worms in contact with the sediment were also found to be seriously contaminated (Table 1). One sample of sewage effluent contained significant quantities of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons together with several substituted benzenes. No hexachlorobenzenes (HCBs) were detected in any of the samples. TABLE 1: Organochlorine levels in mg/kg wet weight from samples collected in the vicinity of McMurdo Station. Sample a PCB HCH Dieldrin DDE Polychaete 59.39 n/d b n/d n/d Nemertean 0.23 n/d 0.09 n/d Seal Blubber 6.47 0.04 0.04 0.06 Sediment c 1.25 37.07 d n/d n/d Notes: a All samples were from Winter Quarters Bay except the seal blubber which was collected in Erebus Bay near Little Razorback Island. b n/d = Not detected. c Two further sediment samples taken at Winter Quarters Bay showed PCB concentrations matched to Aroclor 1260, of 1.03 and 0.99. d Lindane identification in the sediment sample was confirmed by gas chromatography/ion trap detection (GC/ITD) analysis. Furthermore, a significantly elevated value of PCBs (75mg/kg fat) in blubber from a Weddell seal was shown by Soedergren (Table 2). The sample was taken from a male specimen that had died on the sea ice a few days previously as a result of injuries sustained in rivalry fights. In addition to the results shown in Table 2, dieldrin, heptachlorepoxide, endrin and aldrin, were found. These compounds are yet to be confirmed by mass spectrometry in order to report quantitative results. TABLE 2: Organochlorine levels (mg/kg fat) in samples collected in Erebus Bay (after Soedergren). Sample a [%]Fat PCB b Lindane sumDDT HCB Weddell seal 96 75 n/d3 71 0.28 Zooplankton 0.7 8 0.4 n/d c n/d Zooplankton 2.7 0.2 0.2 n/d n/d Phytoplankton 0.003 1.74 0.3 0.1 n/d d Amphipodes 0.9 1.5 n/d 0.1 n/d Nemerteans 0.4 0.5 n/d 0.1 n/d Fish [Pleurogramma sp.] 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.1 n/d S. Polar skua e 8.4 9.8 n/d 5.0 n/d Notes: a All samples were taken in South Bay except the Weddell seal (Little Razorback Island), Pleurogramma sp. (near Tent Island) and the skua (Cape Evans). b Internal standard 2,2',5,6'-tetrachlorobiphenyl (IUPAC nr 53) has been used. c n/d = Not detected. d Dry weight e Heptachlorepoxide (0.4 mg/kg fat) was also measured in the S. Polar skua. Some results from an air sampling programme (see further Section 3.1.1.B.) are also of interest in this context. A study, designed to monitor levels of PCBs and chlorinated pesticides in the lower atmosphere, was carried out at Cape Evans, 30km north of McMurdo Station, from March 1988-January 1990. One of the findings of the study was a dramatic increase of total PCB concentration in the second half of December, 1988. The increase amounted to PCB levels of two orders of magnitude higher than at any other period. At the same time, levels of other compounds were only slightly increased. The PCB congener pattern detected for this period was almost identical to Clophen A60, an industrial PCB mixture also found by Risebrough et al. (1990) in sediment samples off McMurdo Station. It cannot be ruled out that the recorded PCB increase, measured in the air at Cape Evans, was due to volatilization of PCBs from dumping sites at McMurdo Station contaminating the local environment. (c) Heavy metals Significant metal contamination, particularly of zinc and chromium is evident in those soil samples taken in 1986/87 from McMurdo Station (Table 3). TABLE 3: Heavy metal levels (mg/kg dry wt) in soil samples, collected in the vicinity of McMurdo Station. Cd Cu Pb Zn Cr 1986/87 Mean (n=12) 0.35 28.7 23.8 32.1 14.27 SD 0.20 11.82 22.18 1.92 2.27 Range <0.05-0.60 8.0-47.9 1.5-80.0 29.8-36.7 11.3-17.7 1987/88 Mean (n=15) 0.50 23.36 89.3 89.08 40.65 SD 0.43 14.89 223.0 142.9 40.74 Range <0.05-1.45 1.0-49.8 <1.0-882.0 2.4-600.0 1.8-113.2 Furthermore, effluents from McMurdo Station, sampled several times during 1988 and 1989, contained the heavy metals Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Cr and Ag. Elevated cadmium concentrations of 0.41 and 0.55mg/l were detected in two effluent samples. (iii) Conclusions The presence of McMurdo Station has heavily impacted or, in some cases, destroyed natural landforms in the vicinity. Constructions, vehicular movement, and waste and fuel management, have directly or indirectly affected soils and soil forming processes around McMurdo Station. Accelerated retreat of the snow and ice cover, exposed permafrost, changes in the soil moisture content, instability of slopes, gully erosion, and slumps and flow of saturated soil, are part of this damage (Campbell and Claridge, 1987). The sewage effluent discharge of McMurdo Station was found to contain chemicals which are on the USA Environmental Protection Agency Priority Pollutant List, particularly polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Organochlorine contamination of the sediments has since been confirmed in studies by Risebrough et al. (1990) and Lenihan et al. (1990). The contamination of soil by trace metals is apparently due to fuel spills and dumping since contamination was always associated with these activities. These analytical results suggest that there is mobilisation of environmental contaminants from McMurdo Station into the surrounding area. 2.1.2. Human impacts around four Antarctic Stations on Fildes Peninsula, King George Island, South Shetland Islands. The study was designed to determine the effects of station activities of four bases on their immediate environment. The area of study covers ca. 20km2 and includes Teniente Marsh (Chile), Bellingshausen (USSR), Great Wall (China), and Artigas (Uruguay) Stations and their vicinities. Visible sources of contamination were identified, mechanical destruction of soils was mapped and the main area around the stations affected was determined. A sampling programme was also carried out to investigate the degree and range of pollution caused by fuel spills and to evaluate the effect of domestic sewage and landfills on soils and freshwater bodies in the vicinity of the stations and in the surrounding coastal waters (Fig. 3). Design, field work and evaluation of this project was carried out by Anna Krzyszowska, College of Forest Resources, University of Washington, Seattle. (i) Methods Samples (206) of soil and sediment (each 100g) which were analysed for oil and grease content and trace metals, were collected in "Whirl-Paks" sterile bags, stored at 2-4oC for the period of the fieldwork, and kept frozen during transport. Prior to analysis samples were air-dried and sieved through a 2mm linear polyethylene sieve. For trace metal analysis, sub-samples of 2.5g of the dried soil sample (<2mm fraction) were weighed into a Taylor tube and placed in an aluminium block digester on a hot plate. Concentrated nitric acid (10ml) was added to each tube for predigestion of the samples overnight at room temperature. Heat, increased slowly to 140oC, was applied to the samples for ca. 3 hours. After cooling, distilled water was added to obtain a volume of 25ml. Soil (5-10g of the sieved material) and aqueous samples which were analysed for oil and grease compounds of molecular non-polarity (petroleum hydrocarbon fraction) were treated with Soxlet extraction using Freon with a silica gel clean-up for removal of polar constituents. Surface samples of fresh water, sea water and sewage were collected and analysed for nutrients (68 samples), trace metals (74 samples), oil and grease (59 samples) and organic residues. A Nansen cylinder was used to collect sea water samples from depths of 0.5 and 2m. Water samples for oil and grease analysis were collected in 500ml plastic bottles and preserved by the addition of sulphuric acid (pH<2). Samples were stored at 2-4oC during the fieldwork period. Samples for trace metal analysis were filtered through 0.22mm membranes and stored in 30ml pre-washed (in nitric acid) plastic bottles. Water samples, both filtered and unfiltered, were acidified with ultrex nitric acid (pH 1). Measurements of pH and conductivity (salinity) were carried out in the field and ammonium nitrogen, nitrate and nitrite nitrogen concentrations were also determined. Samples collected for nutrient analysis were filtered through 0.45mm syringe filters then preserved with sulphuric acid (pH<2). They were stored at 2-4oC in 100ml plastic bottles. Samples for bacteriological tests were collected in 500ml sterile bottles. In order to recognise anthropogenic input and quantify all compounds against a well-defined baseline, control samples were taken at locations remote from potential contamination sources for each of the four stations. Aqueous samples were analysed for non-polar oil and grease by gravimetry to achieve a detection limit of ca. 2mg/l. Analysis was carried out by the Analytical Resources Incorporated Laboratory in Seattle, USA. Trace metals in water samples were analysed using a Jarrel Ash 955 Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission Spectrophotometer. Samples which were analysed for organic pollutant were contained in glass bottles with plastic screw caps. The bottles were pre-washed with pesticide residue analysis grade hexane and the caps were acid washed. Analysis for nutrients was carried out using automated procedures (automated phenate for ammonia and automated cadmium reduction for nitrite +nitrate). Nalgene nutrient pad kits were used to estimate Escherichia coli and coliforms. Each sample was diluted in triplicate in ten-fold dilutions. Samples were filtered through a nutrient pad and the pad was incubated for 18-24 hours at 35-37oC. Contamination of samples, originating from preparation and storage procedures was evaluated by analysis of extracts from empty bottles. (ii) Results The main visible sources of chemical contamination were identified as fuel spills from tanks, barrels, and pipes; fuel leaks from pumps and power stations; discharge of domestic sewage and dumping of solid waste. Mechanical effects on soils were caused mainly by vehicles and by activities around the airstrip of the Chilean station. The main area affected by the activities around the stations covered ca. 3.5km2 and totals 12% of the surface area of Fildes Peninsula (Fig. 4 and Table 4). TABLE 4: Main areas affected [m2] by human activities around four Antarctic stations on Fildes Peninsula, King George Island. STATION AREA LANDFILL MECHANICALLY ACTIVITY CONTAMINATED DISTURBED AROUND WITH FUEL STATION Marsh 29,000 20,000 400,000 2,000,000 Bellingshausen 4,200 24,000 200,000 1,000,000 Great Wall 2,000 650 60,000 300,000 Artigas 100 0 40,000 200,000 Fildes Peninsula 35,300 44,650 700,000 3,500,000 A detailed report on the findings of the study is in preparation (Krzyszowska, in prep.). Preliminary results are given below. (a) Oil and grease On Fildes Peninsula an area covering 35,300m2 is contaminated heavily by oil spills (Table 4). The concentration maxima of oil and grease levels [mg/kg] detected in soil samples is shown in Table 5. The largest area of contamination was found around the fuel tank near the airstrip hangar of the Chilean station. Oil had penetrated to a depth of 40cm and was spread along the waterways, being visible more than half a kilometre away from the source of pollution. The highest content of oil and grease (non-polar fraction), 3,151mg/kg dry mass, was found in the soil surface layer in samples collected from near the fuel tank of the Soviet station. TABLE 5: Concentration maxima of oil and grease levels [mg/kg] detected in soil samples from Fildes Peninsula, King George Island. LOCATION OIL AND GREASE NON-POLAR POLAR TOTAL FRACTION FRACTION Teniente Marsh 115,502 106,056 9,446 Bellingshausen 158,449 150,569 7,930 Great Wall 44,280 44,184 96 Artigas 35,883 34,377 1,456 Maxwell Bay 1,230 307 923 (a) Sediment samples The concentration of oil and grease in surface waters ranged from 106-99,321mg/kg. The highest concentration was found in samples from a contaminated pond near the Chilean station. (b) Trace Metals Elevated concentrations of heavy metals were found around the stations tested. The area contaminated was 20,400m2 around Teniente Marsh, 24,200m2 around Bellingshausen and 650m2 around the Great Wall and Artigas stations. Heavy metal contamination was particularly associated with sewage effluents, landfills, fuel tanks and areas contaminated with fuel spills. Samples collected from around the Bellingshausen sewage outlet and landfill showed the highest concentration of trace metals of all samples analysed. At Teniente Marsh, samples taken around the sewage outlet contained concentrations of zinc ten fold higher than controls whilst manganese, silver, iron, nickel, copper and zinc were prevalent around sewage outlets at Bellingshausen. Similarly, sediments at the sewage outfall of the Bellingshausen power station also showed elevated zinc and copper. Water samples from the ponds acting as landfills, as well as soil samples from the vicinity, showed high concentrations of trace metals. Teniente Marsh had elevated concentrations of zinc, copper, manganese, lead and silver whilst the Bellingshausen dump showed much increased concentrations of cadmium and manganese in the pond and zinc and copper in the soil. The Great Wall and Artigas landfill showed high levels of manganese with contamination by zinc, chromium nickel and copper in the surrounding soil. Soil around the fuel tanks at Bellingshausen contained raised concentrations of zinc, lead, cadmium and barium. The highest concentration of barium was measured at the old incineration site. High concentrations of lead were also detected at the Bellingshausen meteorological building. There can be no doubt that there is heavy input from anthropogenic sources at these three stations. (c) Organic Results At both Teniente Marsh and Bellingshausen, toxicologically significant organic pollutants, including substituted benzenes and naphthalenes, were detected in the water samples. (d) Nutrients The largest area affected by sewage contamination, ca. 300m2, was found around the outlet of sewer pipelines from Teniente Marsh Station, the biggest of the four stations investigated. Sewage from the stations in the study area was found to change the concentration of nitrogen ammonium of the water. In surface sea water samples collected from underneath the sewage outlet of the Chilean station, the content of NH3 exceeded by 10 times the value of control samples. Subsurface (0.5m) samples showed the same elevated NH3 content. Furthermore, a water sample, collected from the lake at the old dumpsite of the Chilean station, contained 100 times more nutrients than control samples. The highest content of ammonium nitrogen detected (38.53mg\kg) was in the sewage outlet from the mess hall of the Soviet station. Interestingly, sea water around the outlets of sewers from the Chinese station which is fitted with a sewage treatment plant did not contain higher concentrations of nutrients compared to control samples. (e) Coliforms Bacteriological analysis showed high counts of total coliform bacteria in the waters around sewage outlets (7-4,300 coliforms/100ml). The highest count (13,950 coliforms/100ml) was found around the sewage outlet of the power station and mess hall of the Soviet station. The stream collecting all sewage from the area of the Soviet station was found to contain 360 coliforms/100 ml, far exceeding, e.g., the USA maximum contaminant level for these organisms (<1 coliform/100ml). No coliforms were detected around the sewage outlet of the Chinese station. (f) Mechanical disturbance The area mechanically disturbed measures 0.7km2 (ca. 20%) of the total area of activity around each of the stations under observation. The disturbance includes roads, the vicinity of houses, dumps, scrap-heaps and the airfield (Table 4). 2.1.3. Investigations of contamination in the environment around other Antarctic stations, facilities and regions. Numerous bases (some abandoned), facilities, and other locations in the Ross Sea and Antarctic Peninsula regions, have been subjected to environmental inspections either from the expedition vessel or by Greenpeace personnel on field trips from World Park Base. During the inspections, sampling was carried out to determine levels of contamination and this report deals with the results of that programme. In all, samples of soil, marine sediment, effluent or coastal waters, freshwater, animal tissue and marine benthos and plankton were taken from 46 bases, including 12 abandoned, 7 field stations and 1 shipwreck and a further 16 geographical areas and historic sites. The inspected sites, including the sites already discussed, are listed in Appendix 1. Aerial photographs were taken at six of these locations and surface litter was surveyed at three of the other geographical areas. (i) Methods Water samples were usually taken from the outfall of a station or the waters immediately surrounding the outfall. Samples for heavy metal analysis were contained in acid washed plastic bottles, acidified to 2% (vol) and kept chilled for preservation. Samples for organic pollutant analysis were contained in glass bottles with plastic screw caps. The bottles were pre-washed with pesticide residue analysis grade hexane and the caps were acid washed. Heavy metals and hydrocarbon contamination in the water column at the site of the Bahia Paraiso wreck was examined by obtaining subsurface water samples at 10m, 400m and 500m distance from the wreck taken with "Ruttner"-samplers. Soil sampling was carried out as spot sampling in visually polluted areas and in transects to determine non-visible areas of contamination. Samples were collected in acid washed plastic containers and preserved deep frozen. Plankton samples were taken with a 132mm plankton net. Benthos specimens were collected from the sediment samples. These samples were preserved deep frozen in aluminium foil pre-washed with pesticide residue analysis grade hexane. Tissues of birds and marine mammals were collected in cases where carcasses of freshly dead animals were found. The samples were obtained with hexane-washed stainless steel tools and preserved deep frozen in aluminium foil washed as above. No living specimens were sacrificed for this study. (ii) Results The results of the sampling programme are yet to be finalized. Some of the preliminary findings include: (a) Heavy metals In the Ross Sea region, elevated heavy metal concentrations have been found in samples of effluents and surface water around Antarctic stations. In effluent and water samples from Scott Base (New Zealand), Cd, Pb, Cu, Ag and Zn were detected. The effluent of this station was found to contain Cu at 7.68mg/l (Table 6). Another sample from a meltpool near this station showed an Ag concentration of 1.42mg/l. A sample from Terra Nova station (Italy) showed elevated copper and zinc concentrations whilst effluent samples from Dumont d'Urville showed elevated concentrations of Cu, Zn and Cr (Table 6). Furthermore, two samples of meltwater from Leningradskaya (USSR) station showed Zn levels of 3.4mg/l and 3.65mg/l. In the Antarctic Peninsula, elevated levels were found for one or more of Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn, Cr and Ag in samples from effluents, sea water, ponds and creeks near the following stations:- King Sejong (South Korea), Palmer (USA), General San Martin (Argentina) and Faraday (UK) (Table 6) as well as Rothera (U.K.), Almirante Brown, Marambio (both Argentina) and Ardley Cove and Maxwell Bay. TABLE 6: Heavy metal levels (mg/l) in effluent samples, collected at Antarctic Stations in the Ross Sea and Antarctic Peninsula regions. Location Sampling Cd Cu Pb Zn Cr Ag Date - - - - - [mg/l] - - - - - - - - - - Scott Base 11.02.88 0.34 7.68 0.15 0.58 _ 0.05 (NZ) Terra Nova 06.02.89 n/d 0.06 n/d 0.38 n/d n/d (Italy) 06.02.89 n/d 0.02 n/d 0.31 n/d n/d Dumont d' 15.01.89 n/d 0.11 n/d 0.03 0.05 n/d Urville- 15.01.89 n/d 0.08 n/d 0.02 0.05 n/d (France) King Sejong 08.04.88 n/d 0.45 0.08 0.22 0.01 0.04 (South Korea) Palmer 17.04.88 n/d 0.21 0.07 0.16 n/d 0.05 (USA) 06.11.89 0.02 n/d 0.14 9.00 n/d n/d San Martin 10.11.89 0.02 1.05 0.21 0.89 n/d n/d (Argentina) Faraday (UK) 18.04.88 n/d 0.01 0.05 0.11 0.01 0.05 Extremely high concentrations of some heavy metals were detected in soil samples collected near fuelling facilities (Table 7). The heavy metal contamination shown here can thus be interpreted as a result of improper fuel containment and inadequate fuel handling leading to serious heavy metal contamination in soils at Antarctic Stations. TABLE 7: Heavy metal levels (mg/l) in soil samples collected near fuelling facilities at Antarctic Stations in the Ross Sea and Antarctic Peninsula regions. Location Sampling Ca Cu Pb Zn Cr Ag Date - - - - - [mg/l] - - - - - - - - - - Scott Base (NZ) 11.02.88 n/d 10.8 882.0 600.0 7.4 n/d Jubany 09.04.88 0.35 522.65 2578.40 360.28 3588.85 6.27 (Argentina) 0.44 661.49 3263.34 455.99 4542.22 7.94 King Sejong 08.04.88 n/d 81.01 5.49 73.00 14.35 n/d (S. Korea) n/d 64.38 7.32 61.68 10.79 n/d Arctowski 12.04.88 0.49 91.13 36.70 172.41 21.92 n/d (Poland) 0.65 89.61 30.09 389.61 23.38 n/d Deception 01.04.88 n/d 14.33 n/d 23.88 15.76 n/d Island n/d 18.48 n/d 24.64 7.58 n/d Old Palmer 16.04.88 1.79 48.21 134.53 44.17 102.69 0.67 Stn. (USA) 0.26 17.60 408.16 76.53 255.10 n/d Palmer 17.04.88 0.15 1735.29 720.59 27.65 8.09 n/d (USA) n/d 1.9 187.05 287.77 143.88 n/d Faraday 18.04.88 2.03 60.59 44.37 225.23 1328.83 n/d (UK) 0.94 55.35 15.41 440.25 30.35 1.89 (b) Organic residues At King Sejong, Rothera, General San Martin and at Ardley Cove and Maxwell Bay toxicologically significant organic pollutants, including substituted benzenes and naphthalenes, were detected in the water samples. At the site of the wreck of the Bahia Paraiso, samples of subsurface water were taken up to 500m from the wreck taken in early November 1989. Hydrocarbon analysis showed evidence of two types of pollutants, present in the water column at the time of the sampling, a diesel type fuel oil and a heavier product such as a light or marine type fuel oil. A high proportion of unresolved complex material pointed to the recent introduction of diesel type compounds into the environment, suggesting that the ship was still leaking at the time of the sampling. These findings are similar to those of Kennicutt et al. (1991) who showed that one year after the spill several areas around the Bahia Paraiso still exhibited contamination. Sediment collected by divers immediately adjacent to the wreck contained total polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations of 866 and 1698mg/l. The analytical profiles were typical of fresh diesel fuel and combustion derived PAHs. Freshwater ponds on islands several kilometres distant from the shipwreck continued to exhibit elevated levels of PAHs (184-1152mg/l). The PAH mixture was relatively unweathered suggesting that the contamination was recent, possibly due to continued influx from birds cleaning in the water. A few beaches also continued to exhibit low level contamination which was thought to be from residues or fresh staining. Levels of total hydrocarbons detected in plankton samples taken near the Bahia Paraiso indicate serious contamination from the ship wreck. Plankton samples collected from Winter Quarters Bay off McMurdo Station, as already reported (Table 2) contained measurable levels of PCBs. Only limited specimens from Ross Island were available for analysis. However, PCBs, DDE and dieldrin were measured in fat and liver tissues of skua and Adelie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae) specimens and in Weddell seal blubber. Hexachlorobenzene was detected in fat and liver tissues of skua specimens and, as already reported (Table 1) lindane was found in Weddell seal blubber. 2.1.4. Environmental impact studies at the site of World Park Base, Home Beach, Cape Evans, Ross Island. Upon removal of World Park Base and all its facilities, at Cape Evans during January and February 1992, comprehensive studies were carried out to evaluate the impact of the base operations from 1987-1992 on the local terrestrial and marine environment. Additionally, some environmental parameters were monitored during the base's occupation. Details of other aspects of the environmental impact assessment procedures can be found elsewhere (Greenpeace, 1991c). The investigations of the 1991-92 season addressed a) contamination of nearshore water and sediments, of soils and of freshwater lakes with hydrocarbons, heavy metals, nutrients and bacteria, and b) impacts on physical properties of the soil, including effects on soil moisture content, density and texture, the depth of the frozen ground table and the fate and effects of kerosene (Jet-A-1 aviation) fuel in the soil. The two studies were discussed with, and overseen by, Dr. William Marlatt, Environmental Sciences and Technology Centre, Colorado State University, USA. The contamination in water, soils and sediment will be evaluated by Gretchen Umlauf, Forestry and Wildlife Department of the same university. The fieldwork for this study was carried out by Liz Carr, base scientist at World Park Base during 1989. The study on physical impacts and the fate of fuel spills in soils has been done in consultation with a number of Antarctic soil scientists and was carried out by Ricardo Roura, base scientist at World Park Base during 1990. The environment at Cape Evans has been subject to cumulative impact; historically from Scott's expedition and "Footsteps of Scott" expedition; at present from World Park Base, visitors to Scott's Hut, New Zealand and USA research parties at Cape Evans, as well as the operations of McMurdo and Scott Base in the vicinity. A. Investigation of hydrocarbons, heavy metals, coliform bacteria and nutrients introduced into waters, soils and sediments. (i) Methods Samples were collected according to USA Environmental Protection Agency standards for soil, water and sediment. Soil samples (79) for hydrocarbon analysis were taken in transects through fuel spill sites. In the centre of spills, the soil profile from surface to 20cm depth was sampled. Samples (10) of soil for heavy metal analysis were collected under base structures and the fuel barrel rack, including spill sites, and following a random pattern covering the study area. A number of samples were also taken near the historic Scott's Hut to determine long-term exposure of heavy metal contamination of the soil at this site. Soil control samples were collected ca. 5km north of Cape Evans at Cape Barne, an area little impacted by human activity and of similar geological background. Freshwater samples (4) for hydrocarbon analysis were collected from a meltlake northeast of the base. Freshwater (4) and sediment (5) samples for heavy metal analysis were collected from Skua Lake, the closest lake to the base and situated about 50m to the east. The lake was also sampled for nutrient analysis and tested for presence of coliform bacteria and Escherischia coli. Control samples of freshwater and sediment were taken from Sunken Lake at Cape Barne. Nearshore coastal water at Home Beach, Cape Evans, was sampled for hydrocarbon, heavy metal and nutrient analysis and tested for coliform bacteria. The sampling and testing was carried out at the site where greywater from the base was usually discharged into the sea and at 35m distant from this site. The samples were taken according to a square pattern, representing sites of 0.5m and 2.0m off shore, and 2.0m apart from each other. The same sampling pattern was followed when sampling marine sediments for hydrocarbon analysis at Home Beach. Controls for marine sediment and water samples for hydrocarbon analysis were collected off Cape Barne according to the same sampling scheme. All samples were stored and transported to the analytical facilities at 2-4oC. Water samples for nutrient analysis were collected in ethylene oxide sterilised plastic jars. Those for organic carbon analysis were preserved with sulphuric acid to pH 2. Samples for hydrocarbon analysis were collected in ethylene oxide purified glass containers and samples for heavy metal analysis were stored in ethylene oxide sterilized plastic containers. Water samples for heavy metal contamination were filtered and acidified to pH 2 with nitric acid. Hydrocarbon analysis will be carried out by gravimetry using freon extraction with silica gel clean-up. Screening for heavy metals, including Cr, Cu, Ag, Zn, N, Fe, and Pb, will be by AAS following different digestion methods. Testing for total coliform bacteria and E. coli was done using a 'ColiQuick (Most Probable Number) Method' test kit for water and wastewater. A first test, to two-fold dilution, was carried out when North Bay off Cape Evans was still ice covered and the greywater was dumped into a tide crack, allowing little mixing with seawater. A second test, on undiluted samples, was carried out when the bay was ice free and the greywater was released in open water exposed to wave, tide and current action. Analysis of the samples for hydrocarbons and heavy metals will be carried out at the National Toxics Campaign Fund Laboratory, Boston, Mass., USA. For quality control, a set of samples will be processed at the analytical laboratory 'Hauser Chemical Research', Boulder, Colorado, USA. (ii) Results Results of hydrocarbon, heavy metal and nutrient analysis are expected to be available by May, 1992. The microbiological tests carried out on sea water near the grey water release site at Home Beach showed that samples taken when the grey water was released in the tide crack in the sea ice tested positive for coliform bacteria and negative for E. coli. However, samples collected several weeks later from open water tested negative for both coliform bacteria and for E. coli. B. Investigation of physical impacts on soils and on the fate of fuel spills in the soil. (i) Methods Two characteristic soil profiles in the study area were identified and their sedimentological and genetic features described. Soil density was measured, using a balloon densimeter, under the base structures, on footpaths and at undisturbed sites. Soil moisture content was determined for sites under the base structures and at undisturbed sites by weighing samples before and after drying for 12 hours at 105oC. A number of locations of small fuel spills that occurred during the operation of the base were known through information from over-wintering personnel and from aerial photographs. Others were determined through visual observation and sniff tests on soil samples. All fuel spills, sites of former World Park Base structures and natural features in the vicinity were mapped and a series of aerial surveys was carried out during the base removal operations. On completion of the study, a 25cm cube granite block benchmark was left with references to locate sampling, study and spill sites in case this information will be required for future research. Soil samples (70) were collected along a transect through the study area to investigate physical features and texture changes of soils at impacted and non-impacted sites. A further 102 soil samples were collected at spill sites for total hydrocarbon analysis. Sedimentologically distinct layers, down to 30cm depth, were sampled in transects from the centre of a spill downslope to a maximum distance of 5m in some cases. A number of surface samples was taken at the margin of each spill site. Random soil surface samples (14) for total hydrocarbon analysis were collected from an area of ca. 500m2 surrounding the main area of activity during base operations. Control samples (7) were collected at Trygve Point, a site unaffected by human activity, situated ca. 6km east of Cape Evans, at Inaccessible Island, 3km south of Cape Evans and on the moraine at the margin of the Barne Glacier at Cape Evans, ca. 400m northeast of the station site. The soil samples for hydrocarbon analysis were collected in sterile glass jars with metal lids provided by the analysing laboratory. For sampling, hexane rinsed stainless steel tools were used. Surface meltwater and groundwater was collected in the warmest period of the field season to evaluate the role of water in spreading hydrocarbon contamination. Evaporation of spilled fuel under summer conditions was monitored at Cape Evans. A small amount (200ml) was sampled when it accidentally spilt during base removal and again two weeks later. A surface contaminated site was also sampled when it was exposed after removal of a building, and again two weeks later. Analysis of physical soil properties will be carried out at facilities of Auckland and Waikato Universities, New Zealand. Analysis for total hydrocarbon content will be contracted out to the analytical laboratory 'Alan Aspell & Assoc. Ltd.', Auckland, New Zealand. For a number of samples, 'finger print' analysis determining the type of fuel the detected hydrocarbons are derived from will be carried out. This will establish whether fuel spills originate from operations other than Greenpeace's. (ii) Results Evaluation of the data is expected to be finalised by July 1992. Baseline data and background information on various environmental parameters and wildlife observations is being provided by ongoing studies at World Park Base. The results will be made available in a Greenpeace documentation on the removal of World Park Base. In addition, results are planned to be submitted to a scientific journal for publication. 2.2. Feasibility studies for environmental monitoring. Several projects of the scientific programme are concerned with the suitability of pollution monitoring devices and methods in Antarctica. These are (1) the use of dialysis membranes for measuring lipophilic pollutants in freshwater lakes and coastal areas, (2) dust disturbance at air-fields and (3) aerial photography. 2.2.1. The use of dialysis membranes for measuring lipophilic pollutants in freshwater lakes and coastal areas (i) Methods Dialysis membranes simulating the uptake of pollutants by aquatic organisms were developed and provided by A. Soedergren, Department of Ecology, Lund University, Sweden. All samples were returned to him for analysis. These pollution monitoring devices "filled with hexane, accumulate persistent lipophilic pollutants in a way similar to that of aquatic organisms. The uptake of low molecular weight (<1000), lipophilic compounds seems to be a passive process governed by partitioning mechanisms. The technique may be used to confirm bioaccumulation mechanisms, to predict environmental hazards of bioavailable compounds, and to monitor lipophilic pollutants, especially in environments too severe for biological indicators to survive (Soedergren, 1987)." Dialysis membranes were provided in order to (i) test their suitability in polar regions and (ii) provide a survey of water bodies, mainly coastal fresh water lakes in McMurdo Sound for persistent lipophilic pollutants. To this end, dialysis membranes were placed in areas where anthropogenic pollution was expected and for reference purposes in areas which are not subjected to direct human influence (Fig. 5). These were in South Victoria Land (Lake Vanda, Lake Brownworth, Gneiss Point, Lake Bonney, Lake Fryxell, Strand Moraines) and Ross Island (Crater Lake, Cape Evans, Cape Barne, Cape Royds) and Black Island (Stranded Moraines). Due to weather and sea ice conditions, it was not possible to replace the membranes of all locations in each consecutive year. To obtain information on the correlation between contamination measured in the membranes and the pollutant levels in organisms inhabiting the area where the membranes were exposed, biological samples were also collected. (ii) Results Twenty-one dialysis membranes have been used and the last seven of them were retrieved during 1991. Preliminary results from 6 dialysis membranes have shown uptake of PCBs in two membranes from South Bay (30 week exposure) and Crater Lake (6 weeks exposure). A further membrane showed uptake of Lindane and HCB near an effluent outfall at Crater Lake (<3 weeks exposure). The other three membranes at fresh water sites in the vicinity of Cape Evans showed no uptake of PCBs, lindane or HCB following 12-18 weeks exposure. (iii) Discussion The project seems to be successful as a trial study for the suitability of dialysis membranes in very cold environments. The devices have withstood enclosure in lake ice for periods of several months without damage while air temperatures were likely to drop as low as -50oC. Furthermore, the methodology has allowed the detection of PCBs in situ. The detected levels of PCBs at Crater Lake, near McMurdo Station, would indicate a local source of contamination rather than input through long range pollutant transport. This is because the exposure time of the dialysis membranes at Cape Evans, where no PCBs were detected, was twice or three times as long as the exposure time in Crater Lake. The elevated PCB levels in the aquatic environment and in biota in the vicinity of McMurdo Station (see Table 2), indicated by this study, correspond to findings of Risebrough et al. (1990) and Johnston, (pers. comm.). All dialysis membranes used in the McMurdo Sound area will be analysed and evaluated on return of the membranes retrieved in 1991. The study is expected to be completed in 1992. 2.2.2. Dust disturbance of air-fields Dust movement generated by human activities creates an environmental impact by reducing the albedo of snow and ice, resulting in warming and accelerated melting of the surface during summer (Hattersley-Smith, 1961; Davitaya, 1969). The impact of dust deposition has been reported from several locations in Antarctica (Wellman, 1964; Campbell and Claridge, 1987), as environmental impact of scientific or logistics activities (Benninghoff and Bonner, 1984). Samplers were built in consultation with Laurie Greenfield, Plant and Microbial Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. (i) Methods: A trial investigation of dust disturbance caused by helicopter traffic was undertaken at Marble Point. Dust collectors, consisting of wooden boxes with a honeycomb structured bottom, were installed around the helicopter landing pad in November 1989. These were retrieved in February 1990. One of the collectors was replaced at the helicopter landing site, and another was placed at the face of the Wilson Piedmont Glacier. These collectors were retrieved in January, 1991. The trial investigation continued at Cape Evans where another dust collector was installed from March-November, 1990, oriented to the prevailing winds, in order to compare natural dust transport to dust movements caused by human activities. During the 1990/91 resupply of World Park Base two dust collectors were installed with the same orientation upwind and downwind of the nearby helicopter landing site. The samples were collected following the resupply and the dust collectors replaced in their original positions. They remained in place for the same duration as the resupply. (ii) Results: The samples were handed over for analysis to L. Greenfield, Department of Plant and Microbial Sciences, University of Canterbury, New Zealand. No results are yet available. 2.2.3. Aerial photography A feasibility study of aerial photography as a means to assess environmental impacts in an area began after a survey was carried out at Cape Evans in February 1990. Features which can be monitored by aerial surveys include mechanical degradation of soils and changes in the ice and snow cover of an area. The same methodology was used at the Antarctic Peninsula during the 1990/91 season. Aerial surveys were carried out at Teniente Marsh and O'Higgins (Chile), Bellingshausen (USSR), Great Wall (People's Republic of China), Artigas (Uruguay) and Esperanza (Argentina). Aerial photography of inspected locations will continue on future expeditions. A larger source of material will be collected before an evaluation of the surveys is attempted. 2.3. Anthropogenic litter in the Antarctic marine and terrestrial environment. Data on pelagic litter and hydrocarbon contamination in the Southern Ocean and on the shores of the Ross Sea region have been collected for several years by New Zealand scientists. Although litter was found to be rare in comparison to other parts of the world's oceans, ingestion of plastic granules by southern-feeding sea-birds has been reported (Furness, 1983). "Available evidence suggests that there is circumpolar dispersal of pelagic plastics and other litter and that this material will tend to accumulate, if not be trapped, in the region of the Antarctic Convergence" (Gregory et al., 1984). Floating debris tends to concentrate along oceanic fronts and cast up on windward shores (Gregory, 1990). In Antarctica, human activities have produced an input of organic and inorganic material that is probably one of the most important influences on the soil ecosystem. Due to a very slow decomposition rate, materials introduced to Antarctica will remain for long periods of time exerting any adverse impacts (Campbell and Claridge, 1987). Litter is not only widespread in the vicinity of bases, but is also found in areas that are only temporarily visited by expeditions or scientific field parties. In some cases, such as the Dry Valleys, South Victoria Land, the very environment under study is impacted to such an extent that baseline studies involving measurements of minute amounts of organic material, are impossible or highly suspect (Campbell and Claridge, 1987). The voyages of the MV Gondwana and inspections carried out from World Park Base have provided opportunities to document the occurrence and dispersal of marine debris (1) in the Southern Ocean, (2) on Antarctic shore lines, and (3) on the continent itself. Greenpeace observations supplement ongoing studies by M Gregory, Geology Department and Environmental Sciences, University of Auckland, New Zealand. 2.3.1. Marine debris in the Southern Ocean During the 1989/90 Greenpeace Antarctic Expedition all sightings of litter at sea and on shore were recorded. Ocean trawls with a winged neuston net were carried out to collect samples during the voyages. Net trawls were made (September 26-December 28, 1989) near the Antarctic Convergence (55o South 131o West, 56o South 95o West and 58o South 64o West). Shorelines were surveyed at South Bay, Livingstone Island, Norma Cove, King George Island, and Rocky Bay, King George Island. Plastic, including polystyrene, was sighted several times as well as caught in the neuston net. Eight tows were completed (January 12-March 16, 1990) between 60o and 75o South. The net was towed one hour per day from January 17-21 and January 23 on the voyage to the Ross Sea. On the return from the resupply of World Park Base, two tows were completed near Macquarie Island. No litter was sighted or found in the neuston net. 2.3.2. Marine debris on Antarctic shorelines In April, during the 1990/91 Greenpeace expedition to the Antarctic Peninsula, two beaches at Byers Peninsula situated on Livingstone Island (South Shetland Islands) were surveyed for litter and the characteristics and profile of the two beaches were studied. It was planned to remove all the litter and return it to New Zealand for disposal. Both beaches faced out to the open water of the Drake Passage, and were thus exposed to dominant westerly winds and waves and the prevailing westerly ocean currents. The first beach was a cusp-shaped, gravel beach ridge complex, landward of a discontinuous rock shore platform at the base of muddy gravel glacial deposits. The entire platform was ca. 0.5km2. The second beach was a section of a gravel and sand beach between narrow jutting headlands, landward of a discontinuous rock shore platform and at a base of rock cliffs. Many items were collected, including plastics and hazardous materials e.g. more than 15 buoys, 30 plastic bottles, and 4kg of blue plastic straps. These were identified as material mostly used in the fishing industry. Other items, e.g. fishing nets or ropes, had been lost or discarded during fishing operations. Other litter items, e.g. bottles or food containers presumably deliberately discarded, were identified from attached labels as coming from Japanese, Taiwanese, Argentine, Brazilian, South African, Soviet, French, Spanish, and Australian ships or shores. Due to the large amount of litter scattered on the beaches, not all material was collected as originally planned. All plastic and hazardous materials were collected, while wooden debris of various sizes was left behind. The entire rock shore platform at the first beach and a length of 1km of the second beach was cleaned. The collected litter was sling-loaded to the MV Gondwana. Each item, its use, size, condition, and origin was recorded when possible. 2.3.3. Marine debris on the continent itself. Observations on surface litter were made during trips up and down the Wright and Taylor Valleys (South Victoria Land) in late 1990. A total distance of ca. 200km was covered. A record of all sighted litter was kept, including information on type, condition and location of the finding. Notes on the position of items in relation to the local morphology were taken. Considering the total distance travelled (ca. 200km), the amount of observed litter was comparatively small. Litter was observed most frequently close to logistics or science facilities but was also found to be widespread in other areas. Most of the litter showed signs of weathering. Among the items observed were bamboo wands and bits of wood. Drums fallen from helicopters were observed in a few cases. Wind action plays the main role in transport and re-deposition of surface litter. The remains of the former Lake Bonney Hut (USA), Taylor Valley, are still widespread along the valley, despite a clean up which was carried out after the shelter blew away in 1987. Litter deposition is impacting the Dry Valleys as human activities proliferate. The scientific value of the area as a cold desert ecosystem is increasingly threatened. 3. RESEARCH OF GLOBAL SIGNIFICANCE. Antarctica has been widely recognised as a region that can provide baseline information on global background pollution and as a key area for the detection and monitoring of global trends of, for example, ozone depletion and temperature changes. Whilst levels and transportation of pollutants to the Arctic have become a focus of research in recent years, data from the Antarctic are still scarce. Greenpeace has contributed to aspects of Antarctic science by participating in programmes related to the following fields of research: 3.1. Organochlorine pollutants in Antarctica. The occurrence of organochlorine compounds in Antarctica has been known since the detection of DDT in Antarctic biota and snow in the 1960s (Sladen et al., 1966; George and Frear, 1966; Peterle, 1969). Antarctic research on organochlorine compounds, and other anthropogenic persistent chemicals is an important component of monitoring the global environment for several reasons. Firstly, the Antarctic continent is remote from the world's highly polluted areas. Unlike the North polar region, Antarctica is shielded against major pollutant influx by a circular flow of air and ocean currents. Antarctic research, therefore, can provide reference data for minimum global contamination levels. Secondly, Antarctic studies enable the circulation of certain compounds to be documented e.g. elevated levels of organochlorine pesticides, still in use in many southern hemisphere countries, are detected in Antarctica. Thirdly, transport and deposition of pollutants in Antarctica is different from the Arctic where aerosols play a major role in these processes. Antarctic research on organochlorines therefore may help to determine the importance of deposition by particle fallout as compared to snow scavenging of gaseous organochlorines. However, as pointed out by the UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies 1990 (Stromberg et al., 1990) the available data base "still appears to be rather scarce for an assessment of routes for transport and distribution as well as for possible effects of organohalogen compounds on the Antarctic ecosystem." Greenpeace's scientific programme has for several years supported international research on the occurrence and fate of organochlorines in the Antarctic environment. These collaborative projects are as follows:- 3.1.1. Organochlorine compounds in the atmosphere. A. Organochlorine pesticides in the lower atmosphere of the Southern Ocean and Antarctica, B. PCBs and chlorinated pesticides in the lower atmosphere of Ross Island, and their up-take by marine organisms, C. Atmospheric transport and deposition of organochlorines in Antarctica, 3.1.2. Persistent pollutants in vegetation. 3.1.3. Organochlorine pollutants in birds. 3.1.1. Organochlorine compounds in the Antarctic atmosphere Atmospheric transport is the major route to introduce persistent pollutants into areas remote from human activity. Low, but continuous, loadings of organochlorine contaminants can accumulate considerable levels of residues into an ecosystem. The extent of the air-borne transport of chlorinated hydrocarbons is determined by the compound's volatility and affinity to particles. Whilst this process may contribute to pollutant input to Antarctica, it is only well-recognised in North polar regions. It has been shown that the major part of PCBs, lindane and toxaphene entering the aquatic foodwebs of the Canadian Arctic (Muir et al., 1988) or the Great Lakes (Eisenreich et al., 1981), has been delivered by the atmosphere. An intensive effort is now being made to understand the input and cycling of these chemicals in the Canadian Arctic, fuelled mainly by concern over human exposure. Consumption of fish and marine mammals by native people is higher than in the rest of the Canadian population and may lead to elevated intake. Dewailley et al. (1989) found that the milk of Inuit women from Arctic Quebec contained higher concentrations of organochlorines than milk of women from the southern part of the province. Numerous investigations of organochlorines in Arctic air, snow, and surface sea water have been carried out in the 1980s. This information has been summarized and incorporated into an atmospheric deposition model (Cotham and Bidleman, 1991). In Sweden, Larsson et al. (1990) showed that uptake of organochlorines by members of the terrestrial food chain was strongly correlated to rates of atmospheric deposition. Zooplankton have been proposed as playing a major role in distributing organochlorine residues from atmospheric fallout throughout the ocean depths (Harding, 1986). Atmospheric deposition was also concluded to be the only source for PCBs, DDT and lindane detected in zooplankton (Daphnia magna) in a pond of southern Sweden. Ware and Addison (1973) related temporal irregularities in PCB uptake in zoo- and phytoplankton to variability in atmospheric deposition. Zooplankton, which serve as food for many species of fish, provide an important link in the transfer of persistent pollutants to higher levels in aquatic food webs. Fewer studies have been carried out in Antarctica. However, between 1980-85 several expeditions were made in the Southern Ocean to measure pesticides and PCBs in air and sea water (Tanabe et al., 1982; Tanabe et al., 1983; Kawano et al., 1985). Sampling of marine air for organochlorines was also carried out in New Zealand in 1983 (Atlas and Giam, 1989) and between Cape Horn and the Antarctic Peninsula (Weber and Montone, 1990). A. Organochlorine pesticides in the lower atmosphere of the Southern Ocean and Antarctica The lower atmosphere study was carried out in order to provide recent information on levels of organochlorine pesticides in the atmosphere between New Zealand and Antarctica. The research was done in collaboration with T.F. Bidleman, Department of Chemistry, Marine Science Programme, Belle W. Baruch Institute for Marine Biology and Coastal Research, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA. (i) Methods Air samples were collected from onboard the Greenpeace ship MV Gondwana, January-March, 1990, at several locations (Fig. 6). Known volumes of air (440-1400m3) were pulled through a glass fibre filter (10cm diam.) followed by two polyurethane foam (PUF) plugs (7.8cm diam. x 7.6cm thick). Samples were shipped in a cooler on ice packs to the University of South Carolina (USC). Due to circumstances beyond control the samples remained in unrefrigerated storage in customs for two weeks. Upon receipt, they were frozen until analysed. Plugs and filters were extracted by organic solvents. The extracts were fractionated on an alumina-silica gel column, further cleaned by sulphuric acid treatment, and analysed by capillary gas chromatography with electron capture detection (GC-ECD) for hexachlorobenzene and hexachlorocyclohexane or negative ion mass spectrometry (GC-NIMS) with selected ion monitoring for DDTs and cyclodiene pesticides. Collection and analytical methods are described in Patton et al. (1989) and Patton et al. (1991). Decrease in concentration of the contaminants during shipment was analysed by spiking PUF plugs on board ship with 3-4ng each of several compounds (HCB, HCHs, DDTs, chlordanes). These were shipped, stored, and analysed as described for the samples. Mean recoveries were 65% for HCB and 90% for other organochlorines. Two spikes analysed for DDTs and chlordane constituents yielded 77% average recovery. Thus it appears that major losses did not occur during shipment and unrefrigerated storage. Back PUF plugs in the sampling train were analysed as blanks. Except for HCB, for which the collection efficiency was poor in most cases, back plugs contained <5-10% of front-trap quantities. (ii) Results A preliminary evaluation of the data has been provided by Bidleman. Organochlorines identified were: alpha-HCH, gamma-HCH, HCB, heptachlorepoxide (HEPX), trans-chlordane (TC), cis-chlordane (CC), trans-nonachlor (TN), cis-nonachlor (CN), p,p'-DDE, and p,p'-DDT (Table 8). TABLE 8: Organochlorine compounds (pg/m3) detected in air sampled on the voyage of the MV Gondwana from New Zealand to the Ross Sea, 1990: SAMPLE NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Southern 45.4- 48.9- 52.2- 59.0- 77.6 77.4- 64.4- 63.8- 50.8 Latitude 45.9 52.3 59.0 76.8 77.9 63.6 51.0 - 47.1 Sample Jan16 Jan17 Jan18 Jan20 Jan31 Feb7 Feb26 Mar7 Mar14 Period -17 -18 -20 -25 -Feb3 -10 -Mar4 -14 -15 alpha-HCH 4.8 4.0 4.7 3.3 3.3 2.7 3.6 4.4 6.7 mma-HCB 4.9 1.7 6.0 1.4 1.1 1.6 5.6 16.9 13.0 HCB -- -- -- 40 78 -- 70 -- -- HEPX -- 0.64 0.25 0.45 0.59 -- 0.46 0.68 0.75 TC -- 1.1 0.65 0.30 0.10 -- 0.67 1.1 1.8 CC -- 1.4 0.71 0.55 0.27 -- 0.91 1.7 1.2 TN -- 0.37 0.31 0.12 0.08 -- 0.26 0.43 0.75 CN -- <0.01 0.03 0.02 0.03 -- 0.02 0.05 0.08 p,p' -DDE -- 0.64 0.43 0.17 0.25 -- 0.17 0.51 0.54 p,p -DDT' -- 1.1 0.89 0.38 <0.2 -- 0.35 0.58 0.72 HCH = Hexachlorocyclohexane; HCB = Hexachlorobenzene; HEPX = Heptachlor epoxide; TC, CC = Trans and cis-chlordane; TN, CN = Trans and cis-nonachlor. Levels of organochlorines from this study were also compared to other measurements in the southern hemisphere in Table 9. [] TABLE 9: Organochlorine compounds (pg/m3) detected between 1981/82 and 1990 in the atmosphere of the Southern Ocean and Antarctica. Year alfa gamma HCB sum sum Reference HCH (a) HCH (a) (b) Chlordanes (c) DDTs (d) 1990 4.2 5.8 63 2.1 1.0 This work 1987 55 15 -- -- 41 Weber& Montone 1984 -- -- -- 6.2 10 Kawano et al. (1985) 1983 25 1.3 61 1.3 1.8 Atlas & Giam (1989) 1981 /82 38 55 -- -- 118 Tanabe et al. (1983) 1980 /81 44 87 -- -- 156 Tanabe et al. (1982) (iii) Discussion (a) Alpha- and gamma-HCH Concentrations of HCHs in air were generally lower than other values from the southern hemisphere, especially for alpha-HCH. Average concentrations of alpha-HCH and gamma-HCH were 4.2 and 5.8pg/m3, respectively (Table 9). However, markedly higher levels of gamma-HCH at the two stations south of Australia and New Zealand (Fig. 7) were found. The predominance of gamma-HCH relative to alpha-HCH in the atmosphere between Australia and Antarctica has also been seen by Tanabe et al. (1982, 1983). They suggest that the use of lindane (pure gamma-HCH) in Australia might account for the high proportion of gamma-HCH. The proportion of alpha-HCH is higher north of Australia (Kurtz and Atlas, 1990), at Ninety Mile Beach in New Zealand (Atlas and Giam, 1989), and between South America and the Antarctic Peninsula (Weber and Montone, 1990). The source of alpha-HCH in the southern hemisphere is unclear. In the northern hemisphere the massive use of technical HCH, which contains a high percentage of the alpha-isomer, has resulted in background alpha-HCH concentrations of several hundred pg/m3 and typical alpha-HCH/gamma-HCH ratios of 5-10:1 (Cotham and Bidleman, 1991; Tanabe et al., 1982; Tatsukawa et al., 1990; Kurtz and Atlas, 1990). Some technical HCH may be used in the southern hemisphere, however, statistics are unavailable. Tatsukawa et al. (1990) found an increase in the proportion of alpha-HCH in southern hemisphere air in 1983-84 compared to 1976-81, and suggest that a change in the usage pattern from lindane to technical HCH is occurring in southern hemisphere countries. Other possibilities are that gamma-HCH isomerises to alpha-HCH in the environment (Pacyna and Oehme, 1988) and alpha-HCH diffuses from the northern to the southern hemisphere. However, the latter process has been estimated to be very slow (Ballschmitter and Wittlinger, 1991). Kurtz and Atlas (1990) found exceptionally high levels of alpha-HCH in surface water of the Coral Sea in July, 1987, which was speculated to have been caused by local runoff or improper disposal of pesticide waste. (b) HCB HCB was poorly collected by PUF for most samples and nearly equal quantities were found on both front and back plugs. HCBs at three of the more southerly, colder stations were detected (Table 8) and concentrations of 40-78pg/m3 were close to the mean of 61pg/m3 at Ninety Mile Beach (Atlas and Giam, 1989). (c) Chlordane The sum of chlordane constituents from the MV Gondwana cruise averaged 2.1pg/m3 (Table 9). These results confirmed those of Atlas and Giam (1989) (1.3pg/m3) at Ninety Mile Beach and Kawano et al. (1985) (6.2pg/m3) over the Southern Ocean. (d) DDT The average concentration of DDT from the present study (sum-DDTs 1.0pg/m3) (Table 9) is similar to that found at Ninety Mile Beach, New Zealand by Atlas and Giam (1.8pg/m3) in 1983. However, DDTs appear to be subject to strong spatial/temporal variations in the Antarctic atmosphere. Tanabe et al. (1983) found 20-240pg/m3 at Syowa Station, the Sabrina Coast, and the Balleny Islands in 1981-82. A few years later Kawano et al. (1985) found much lower levels (8-11pg/m3) over the Southern Ocean between Australia and Antarctica. Tatsukawa et al. (1990) documented a marked decrease in global atmospheric DDT levels in the decade between 1975-85. The sum-DDTs in seven air samples taken between Cape Horn and the Antarctic Peninsula in January-March, 1987, ranged from <3-88pg/m3, and averaged 41pg/m3 (Weber and Montone, 1990). In conclusion, much remains to be learned about the sources and distribution of organochlorine pesticides in the southern troposphere, and the role of atmospheric processes in delivering contaminants to the Antarctic food chain. A year-round intensive sampling programme is needed to map the spatial variability and seasonal changes in aerial organochlorine concentrations. B. PCBs and chlorinated pesticides in the lower atmosphere of Ross Island, and their uptake by marine organisms A programme has been carried out at Cape Evans to monitor levels of PCBs, p,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDE and lindane in the air and to study the uptake of these pollutants by marine biota. The project was undertaken in collaboration with Per Larsson, Department of Ecology, University of Lund, Sweden. (i) Methods An air sampling system was installed at the southernmost end of World Park Base, Cape Evans. Between March 1988 and January 1990, air was sampled for periods of 7-21 days, during which 200-600m3 of air were filtered through two polyurethane foam plugs connected in series. This low-volume sampling technique has been described by Larsson and Okla (1989). Zooplankton samples were collected during 1989 and 1990 through a hole in the sea ice in South Bay, off Cape Evans. Collections were made every two weeks using vertical tows of a 300mm plankton net from a depth of 50m. Furthermore, tissue of Pagothenia bernacchii, a nototheniid fish, was also provided for analysis of organochlorine pollutants. Zooplankton samples and fish tissue samples were wrapped in aluminium foil and preserved deep frozen. Compounds adsorbed to the polyurethane foam plugs were extracted with acetone/hexane (1:1). Persistent pollutants in zooplankton were extracted according to Larsson (1989). The hexane was separated, cleaned-up by fuming sulphuric acid and evaporated to 50-200ml. The cleaned-up extract was analysed for persistent pollutants by Gas Chromatography with Electron Capture Detection (GCECD). Twenty four PCB congeners were identified, quantified and numbered according to IUPAC (Ballschmitter and Zell, 1980). Clophen A 60 was used as a standard. PCB 53 (2,2'5,6'-tetrachlorobiphenyl) was used as an internal standard. Detection limits were 0.3pg/m3 for PCB 153, 0.5pg/m3 for lindane and 0.2pg/m3 for p,p'-DDE. None of these pollutants could be detected in non-exposed polyurethane foam plugs. The analysis was carried out at the Ecology Department of the University of Lund, Sweden, and a preliminary evaluation of the data was provided by P. Larsson. A paper on the findings, summarized below, will be submitted to "Marine Pollution Bulletin." (ii) Results and discussion Lindane showed the highest concentration of the investigated pollutants in Antarctic air with levels ranging from 5-114pg/m3. Mean temperature during sampling periods and levels of lindane in air were significantly correlated with high concentrations during summer and low during winter. Air temperatures were extremely low during the study period, and in 14 out of 29 sampling periods the mean temperature was below -15oC. The seasonal variation of lindane levels could be attributed to the higher vapour pressure of lindane compared to the other compounds monitored. The more volatile lindane could be volatilized at the higher temperatures during the summer season, be transported for long distances and thus show a seasonal concentration pattern in the Antarctic atmosphere. For sum PCB, individual PCB congeners, p,p'-DDE or p,p'-DDT no relationship with temperature was recorded. The extremely cold climate of Antarctica might suppress seasonal variations of compounds with lower vapour pressure, e.g. DDTs and PCBs. The mean value of total PCB concentration was 17pg/m3. The dominant PCB congeners during the whole study were PCBs 95, 101, 110, 149+118, and 153. On one occasion, in the Antarctic summer (December 16-28, 1988) levels of PCBs in the air increased dramatically and the concentration was two orders of magnitude higher than at any other period. Simultaneously, concentrations of lindane, p,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE were increased. Their increase was considerably lower than for PCBs. The increase might have been the result of long range transport of incoming, highly contaminated air-packages. However, a local contamination source for the high PCB levels can not be ruled out. The PCB congener pattern for the sample of December 1988 was found to be almost identical to Clophen A 60, an industrial PCB mixture found by Risebrough et al. (1990) in PCB contaminated sediments off McMurdo Station, 30km south of Cape Evans. Volatilization of PCBs from dumping sites at McMurdo Station and further airborne transport could account for the increase of PCBs in the air at the sampling site on Cape Evans. Increased levels of p'p-DDT and lindane for the same period as PCBs are not indicative for a local contamination source, unless use and presence of these compounds at McMurdo Station are further confirmed. So far, elevated levels of Lindane have been detected in one sediment sample from McMurdo Station (Table 1). Levels of p,p'-DDE and the parental compound p,p'-DDT varied between 0.2-43pg/m3 and 0.3-145pg/m3, respectively. The values are comparable to those found by a recent study in the Southern Hemisphere where Wittlinger and Ballschmitter (1987) measured average levels of 8pg/m3 for p,p'-DDT. In zooplankton, levels of lindane varied from 0.9-39.7ng/g fresh weight (19-3322ng/g extractable fat). For p,p'-DDE, levels ranged between 0.1-4.2ng/g fresh weight (3-354ng/g extractable fat). In four samples, p,p'-DDE was not detected. Highest levels were recorded after the Antarctic summer. Lindane and p,p'-DDE levels on extractable fat basis were negatively correlated to zooplankton fat content. PCB and p,p'-DDT were only occasionally found in zooplankton. In conclusion, the results show that substantial amounts of persistent pollutants reach the Antarctic ecosystem. Lindane was detected in all samples but one, PCB congeners in all samples but two, and p,p'-DDT or p,p'-DDE in all samples but four during the two year study. Furthermore, consideration must be given to the fact that the mean air temperatures during several of the sampling periods were below -20oC. The threat from persistent pollutants to wildlife in cold climates is more pronounced than in more temperate regions, as fat deposits and pollutants are accumulated during periods of high food availability. In periods of little or no food supply, such as breeding seasons in some species, these fat deposits are depleted and the accumulated pollutants are released into the body. C. Atmospheric transport and deposition of organochlorines in Antarctica Although there is evidence that organochlorines are atmospherically transported to the Antarctic (Risebrough, 1977; Tanabe et al., 1982; Tanabe et al., 1983), much is still unknown about the mechanisms involved e.g. what are the deposition and accumulation processes of organochlorines in Antarctica?, how rapidly are organochlorines deposited from the atmosphere onto the snowpack and into the ocean? and what are the accumulated levels of present compounds? In order to help answer these questions, Greenpeace has collaborated with D. Gregor, Canada Center for Inland Waters, National Water Research Institute, Conservation and Protection, Environment Canada, Burlington, Ontario, Canada. The aim of the project is to compare organochlorine concentrations in samples of snow taken at different times of the year, as well as samples of annual snow pack accumulation from different locations, including sites on the Ross Ice Shelf which are remote from potential local sources of contamination. (i) Methods Large quantities (ca. 40kg) of duplicate samples of snow were collected into Teflon bags using a stainless steel shovel, pre-rinsed with pesticide grade hexane and acetone. The bags were sealed airtight in the field with a clip sealer and the contained snow was kept frozen by outside storage. During 1991, snow collections were made at 5 sites in the McMurdo Sound area. The locations of the sampling sites were: Cape Evans, Ross Island, 77.6oSouth/ 166.4oEast Ross Ice Shelf off Cape MacKay, 77.8oSouth/ 168.5oEast Ross Ice Shelf SW of Black Island, 78.3oSouth/ 166.2oEast Butter Point, South Victoria Land, 77.7oSouth/ 164.3o East. At Cape Evans, snow was collected in February and August, 1991, from fresh snowfall. In September, a snowsampler, designed to collect falling snow as opposed to windblown snow, was erected on South Bay. A snow sample was obtained from the snowsampler for the period of September-December. The samples from different time periods collected at one site (Cape Evans) are intended to provide information on seasonal characteristics of organochlorine compounds and levels in snow. In addition, a sample was collected on the annual sea ice off Hut Point (77.8o South, 166.7o East), the southern end of Ross Island, near McMurdo Station in order to test whether station activities such as fossil fuel combustion and incineration are affecting pollutant levels in the snow in the vicinity. Melting of the snow samples at room temperature, took place within the sealed bags at World Park Base after which the liquid samples were extracted by using a continuous-flow, large-volume liquid phase extractor. All samples were spiked prior to extraction to monitor extraction efficiencies. This method is described in Goulden and Anthony (1987) and by Neilson et al. (1988). Sample extracts were stored frozen and will be forwarded to Gregor at the National Water Research Institute, Environment Canada, where final extraction and analysis, using gas chromatography with electron capture detection, will be carried out. (ii) Results Results of the study are not expected before 1992. 3.1.2. Persistent pollutants in Antarctic vegetation A "Working Group on Pollution in Remote Areas" (WGPRA - Department of Environmental Biology, University of Siena, Italy) has been established by a group of ecotoxicologists to facilitate investigations on the occurrence of xenobiotic chemicals on a global scale. The studies focus on those regions of the earth that are remote from major direct sources of contamination. The researchers combine different methods, including theoretical models, simulation chambers, field measurements and field collections. The analysis of the samples (mainly leaves, lichen and mosses) are carried out in the same laboratories using the same methodologies thus providing compatible results for the different geographical areas. Samples for the study have been collected during expeditions promoted by the group itself or during other expeditions. Between 1984 and 1988 WGPRA has collected samples from northern Canada, Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, the Svalbard Archipelago, Finland, the Cape Verde Islands, West Africa, Mt. Kenya, the Himalayas, New Zealand, and the Antarctic Peninsula. Analysis of samples from these areas could determine patterns of the global distribution and fate of compounds such as pesticides and PCBs. Experiments and direct measurements carried out by the working group in different regions have shown a positive correlation between contamination levels in plant material and air. WGPRA has, therefore, proposed that the measurement of contamination in vegetation can be used as a general indicator of the tropospheric contamination for some compounds. To carry out this study, Greenpeace has collaborated with E.D. Bacci, WGPRA, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Siena, Italy. (i) Methods Samples of Antarctic vegetation from Ross Island, Black Island, and South Victoria Land were collected for WGPRA as a part of Greenpeace's Antarctic Science Programme in 1988. The samples, collected at locations where vegetation was abundant, included mosses, and terrestrial and aquatic algae. Using stainless steel instruments, samples were wrapped in several layers of aluminium foil and frozen prior to analysis. In order to follow the required sampling procedure and avoid contamination the samples were not subjected to species identification. (ii) Results and discussion The concentrations of HCBs and HCHs (Table 10) corresponds to the findings of WGPRA in moss and lichen samples collected in 1984/85 from the Antarctic Peninsula (Bacci et al., 1986). HCB levels in mosses from the Antarctic Peninsula (between 0.3-0.8ng/g dry weight, Bacci et al., 1986) compared to levels between 0.12 and 0.5ng/g dry from South Victoria Land. Similarly, HCH levels in Antarctic Peninsula mosses ranged between 0.23 and 1.7ng/g dry weight (Bacci et al., 1986) compared to levels found in samples collected by Greenpeace in the McMurdo Sound region (between 0.02 and 0.18ng/g dry weight). Pollutants were not detected in aquatic algae except in a sample collected from Cape Evans, Ross Island, which had the highest levels of any compound from all the samples taken. TABLE 10: Organochlorine compounds (ng/g dry wt) detected in vegetation samples from Ross Island and South Victoria Land, Antarctica. Sample HCB alpha-HCH gamma-HCH p,p'DDE p,p'DDT Moss1 0.23 0.16 0.05 0.2 0.2 Moss1 0.12 0.10 0.02 0.1 0.1 Moss2 0.50 0.27 0.08 0.4 0.4 Moss3 0.43 0.18 0.06 0.3 0.3 Terrestrial Algae4 0.15 0.11 0.04 0.2 0.2 Aquatic Algae1,2,4,5 n/d n/d n/d n/d n/d Aquatic Algae6 0.62 0.29 0.10 0.4 0.4 n/d = not detected. a Strand Moraines, coast of South Victoria Land b Lake Brownworth, Wright Valley, South Victoria Land c Cape Barne, Ross Island d Gneiss Point, coast of South Victoria Land e Black Island, Ross Ice Shelf f Cape Evans, Ross Island Of the sites sampled for vegetation in 1988, Cape Evans has probably been exposed to human activity more frequently and for the longest period. In 1911 Scott's Expedition choose Cape Evans as the site for their base which, since the 1950s, has been visited frequently. Cape Evans has also been the site of field studies and field camps of the New Zealand and USA Antarctic Programmes. In the mid-1980s a private British expedition overwintered at this site and since 1987 Greenpeace has maintained a year-round base. In recent years several hundred ship-based tourists have visited Cape Evans. The occurrence of organochlorine compounds in the Cape Evans area is subject to further investigation. HCH levels from samples taken in the Antarctic peninsula are of one to two orders of magnitude lower than the levels in different plants in Europe, whereas HCB levels were similar to those reported for mosses and lichens in Sweden and Finland (Stromberg et al., 1990). Levels of HCB and HCH reported in recent studies on the lower atmosphere in Antarctica and other regions of the southern hemisphere reflect the same general pattern. Atlas and Giam (1989) report significantly higher HCB levels than alpha- and gamma-HCH levels from samples collected in New Zealand, Samoa, and coastal Peru. The collaborative study of Bidleman and Greenpeace also included sample analyses for HCBs which indicated similarly high levels compared to HCHs. Unexpectedly elevated HCB levels have also been reported from a biological sample taken from this region as part of a project to study local impacts of Antarctic stations on the environment (Johnston, pers. comm.). The hypothesis of the WGPRA researchers that contamination in vegetation is useful as an indicator of atmospheric contamination appears to be confirmed by the results from vegetation samples collected from Ross Island, Black Island, and South Victoria Land. 3.1.3. Organochlorine pollutants in Antarctic birds Organochlorines may be present in some Antarctic bird species as a result of their migratory patterns into areas of high pollution (Furness, 1987) e.g. the South Polar skua (Catharacta maccormicki) only comes to the Antarctic to breed, the rest of the year it is pelagic feeding at sea and along the coastlines of the southern continents (Watson, 1975). Furness (1987) has suggested that the skua group may be looked upon as "barometers of environmental health", to be used specifically for measuring the variety and relative concentrations of global pollutants. Preliminary data does show that South Polar skuas carry elevated levels of DDE (Focardi, University of Siena and the III Italian Antarctic Research Programme). A research group led by G. Court and L. Davis, Department of Zoology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand is monitoring levels of global pollutants in all Antarctic birds. Hexachlorobenzene (HCB), p.p'-DDE, p.p'DDT and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are common residues in the eggs of both Adelie penguins and the South Polar skuas. Preliminary results have revealed a marked difference between the concentrations of these contaminants in the two species: p,p'-DDE and PCB residues are ca. 50 times higher in the South Polar skua than in the Adelie penguin. These differences reflect the differing winter ranges of the two species: unlike penguins, skuas are long distance migrants, and are known to range over polluted water bodies in winter. The group is committed to collecting only those specimens that are found dead. So far, collections have been made on Ross Island both in the vicinity of bases and at penguin colonies (Cape Bird, Cape Royds, and Cape Crozier). Any specimens of Antarctic birds are sought after to add to the data. Greenpeace is collaborating with this group and has provided specimens which were found recently dead. (i) Methods At different locations, the following collections have been made over the past 3 years: - South Polar skua (Catharacta maccormicki): Cape Evans, Ross Island (6 specimens), Terra Nova Bay, Victoria Land (1). - Adelie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae): Dumont d'Urville, Terre Adelie (1), Hope Bay, Antarctic Peninsula (1, juvenile), - Chinstrap penguin (P. antarctica): Maxwell Bay, King George Island (1), - Diving petrel (Pelecanoides exsul): Southern Ocean (off Wilkes Land) (1), - Black-browed albatross (Diomeda melanophris): Shag Rock, South Georgia (1). Residues were measured in the brain, liver, and breast muscle tissue from each carcass. Livers of specimens were further investigated for evidence of biochemical responses to mixed-function oxidase activity. (ii) Results and discussion Some of the material has already been evaluated and the first results of the study have been reported (Court, pers. comm.). In skua and Adelie penguin specimens, the congener 22'44'55', a hexachlorobiphenyl, predominated, constituting 35% of the total PCB residue in the skuas and 29% in the penguins. This is in contrast to earlier findings of Risebrough et al. (1976) who first recorded PCBs in Antarctic bird species and noted that the bulk of the residue in their samples consisted of pentachlorobiphenyls. Further, a comparison of absolute levels of these residues in Adelie penguin eggs showed that PCB levels obtained in the present study averaged 83 ppb lipid weight compared to 59 ppb found by Risebrough et al., (1976). These results may reflect a global increase in PCB pollution over the last fifteen years. DDE residues, however, were lower, 32 ppb lipid weight compared to 139 ppb determined by Risebrough et al., (1976). It is interesting to note that PCB and DDE levels recorded in South Polar skua eggs are only a small fraction of those found in skua eggs from the North Atlantic. South Polar skuas spend ca. 4-5 months in Antarctica, before migrating over the Southern Ocean, and are not uncommon in the northern Pacific and northern Atlantic during winter (Devillers, 1977; Furness, 1987). Furness and Hutton (1976) reported levels of 17.6mg/kg (wet weight) for PCBs and 1.7mg/kg (wet weight) for DDE in eggs of the great skua (Catharcta skua). The much lower levels found in South Polar skuas may indicate that the adults spend a much smaller part of the year in polluted waters than is believed, or, possibly, that the immature birds winter in the northern hemisphere, as suggested in an earlier study of migrant skuas (Devillers, 1977). 3.2. Depletion of stratospheric ozone and effects on the marine ecosystem The depletion of stratospheric ozone discovered several years ago is progressing rapidly, and has become, perhaps, one of the biggest threats to the global environment. As a result of declining ozone levels, increasing UV-b, known to be harmful to organisms, reaches Antarctica in the springtime. Although levels of UV radiation in Antarctica are not higher than those at summer solstice in lower latitudes, they are considerably higher than the levels to which Antarctic species are adapted (Voytek, 1990). Moreover, with the influx of UV-b occurring at a time when Antarctic marine plankton emerges from winter dormancy, acclimatisation of organisms to enhanced radiation is limited. The potential impact of ozone depletion on Antarctic marine life is of global concern. The Southern Ocean is one of the most productive ecosystems of the world; a decrease of primary productivity in Antarctic waters is likely to affect global oceanic production. Furthermore, a reduction of primary productivity would result in a relative increase of CO2 in the atmosphere since phytoplankton, as primary producers, fix a large amount of CO2 as organic carbon. The ultimate impact of increased UV-b on marine life in Antarctica is not well understood. Studies on the effected ecosystems, as well as research on the physical processes, is necessary in order to predict changes. Several research projects addressing ozone depletion and its potential impacts on Antarctic ecosystems have been supported by Greenpeace. 3.2.1. Near surface distribution of plankton in southern high latitudes The voyage of the MV Gondwana in the Ross Sea, from mid-January to mid-March, 1990, provided an opportunity to examine the near surface distribution of plankton at high latitudes in relation to the level of exposure to solar radiation. Although measurements of UV-b radiation were not taken, this work will provide some background material required for designing more detailed projects. The aim of the project was to determine solar radiation penetrating the water column and to obtain information on the range of species that are mostly affected by increased solar radiation. It was designed by J. Hardy, Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University, Bellingham, and coincided with a similar programme conducted from mid-February to mid-March, 1990, in the southwest Pacific. (i) Methods Phytoplankton was collected from the surface at depths of 1m, 2m, 4m and 16m using a "Ruttner"-sampler. Samples were preserved in Lugol's iodine. Zooplankton samples were taken at the surface, 0.5m and 1m depths, using a 3-tiered, 500mm neuston net with a flowmeter. Samples were preserved in buffered formalin. Solar radiation was measured using a submersible photometer with a spherical sensor (LI-COR equipment). This equipment, for measuring visible light, was made available by R. Davis-Colley, Water Quality Center, DSIR, Hamilton, New Zealand. Readings were plotted at 2m depth intervals down to 20m when lowering the probe, and at intervals in between, when bringing the probe back up to the surface. Date, time, location, cloud cover, sun angle, and sea surface conditions were recorded for each sample. Samples were taken at North Bay, Cape Evans; Winter Quarters Bay, McMurdo Sound; Terra Nova Bay; Dumont d'Urville; and Porpoise Bay (64o 57.6' South, 128o 53.9' East). (ii) Results The data and samples are currently being analysed by Hardy. 3.2.2. Early spring transparency of Antarctic sea ice Studies over several years of the physical properties of sea ice in the vicinity of Cape Evans, Ross Island (Buckley and Trodahl, 1987a,b) have shown that sea ice is more transparent in the early spring, coinciding with the time of maximum ozone depletion, than later in the season (Trodahl and Buckley, 1989). This suggests that potential biological effects of the ozone depletion on the under-ice communities may be greater than otherwise anticipated (Frederick, 1989). During spring, and its associated rising temperatures, brine drainage from the surface leaves behind air pockets that dramatically change the optical properties of the ice (Buckley and Trodahl, 1987b) increasing its turbidity. These optical changes are related to ice surface temperatures, snow cover and ice microstructure. The sea ice studies, carried out during the austral summer seasons, have been complemented by Greenpeace through year-round observations and sampling since 1990. Collaboration on two studies has taken place with J. Trodahl, Physics Department, Victoria University of Wellington. A. Springtime changes of the surface and turbidity of sea ice (i) Methods Studies of the development of the sea ice surface were made from May-November, 1990. Samples of the upper 2cm and of the layer between 2cm and 5cm of first-year sea ice were taken from locations on North Bay and South Bay, Cape Evans. The salinity of the sea ice surface at two sites was also determined twice a week together with the salinity of the meltwater. Snowcover on the ice was both recorded as an absolute value and as a percentage of current ice thickness which was measured weekly. The data obtained complemented studies of the transmission of visible light through the ice, carried out from October-November, by the New Zealand scientists. (ii) Results Preliminary results show that the surface of the sea ice changes rapidly in the spring with the changes occurring as early as the beginning of October, an earlier time than previously recorded. The development of turbidity during spring was also found to correlate to changes of the physical properties of the top layers of the sea ice. More detailed results will be published in a separate paper (Buckley et al., in prep.). B. Density, salinity and temperature measurements of sea ice The characteristics of sea ice which determine optical behaviour, as well as various other properties, depend on its thermal and physical history. Information on thermal conductivity is required for the modelling of sea ice growth and the physical strength of the ice and, therefore, monitoring of the physical state of the sea ice throughout the year is essential. In support of this research in 1991, Greenpeace scientists monitored the surface changes of sea ice and conducted a thermal wave experiment at South Bay near Cape Evans. The aim was to study the thermal history of sea ice and the history and development of the near surface region, the frozen grease ice, throughout the year. (i) Methods Eleven thermocouples, contained at 18cm intervals, in a stainless steel tube filled with oil, were placed into the sea ice on April 24, 1991, when the ice was ca. 55cm thick. Whenever conditions allowed, readings of the temperature profile within the ice were taken daily. Air temperature and snow cover at the measuring site were recorded along with the temperature data. The ice thickness was determined twice a week. These measurements were continued until December, 1991. Approximately every 4 weeks from July-October, 1991, 3 hourly measurements have been maintained for a 24 hour period. Meteorological observations were recorded at the same intervals. Core samples were taken weekly to monitor salinity and density changes of the ice surface. Sections of the upper 4cm, 4-8cm, and 8-12cm depth were cut and the density determined by weighing the samples in air and kerosene. Sections of a second core sample were melted for salinity determination. This sampling continued until mid-November, 1991. (ii) Results All data and observations have been forwarded to J. Trodahl for evaluation and publication. 3.3. Baseline measurements of atmospheric mercury in the Southern Ocean The purpose of this project is to obtain baseline Total Gaseous Mercury concentrations in the atmosphere above the Southern Ocean. No data exist presently for this region. It is anticipated that the productive waters of the Antarctic Convergence are a source of dimethyl mercury. The project has been developed by Steve de Mora, Chemistry Department, Auckland University, New Zealand, with whom Greenpeace is collaborating. (i) Methods Gold retains all forms of gaseous mercury when exposed to the air. To obtain measurements of the concentration of gaseous atmospheric mercury, measured quantities of air were drawn through mercury collectors consisting of gilded sand in a glass tube at a height of ca. 15m. The collectors and air pump were installed at the starboard and port side of the "monkey island" on the MV Gondwana. The air pumps were 230V Thomas pumps. The air volume was recorded using an integrating flow meter. At each sample time, samples were taken using both collectors (one from each side). Contamination from the ship's funnels was prevented by only sampling at times the samplers were upwind from the funnels. When not in use these collectors were kept covered with parafilm. During sampling the following records were kept: the ship's position at the start and finish of the sampling period; track during sampling; windspeed; and the direction and bearing to the bow. (ii) Results Nineteen sets of duplicate samples were collected during the voyage in the Southern Ocean and the Ross Sea in 1989/90. They have been forwarded to de Mora for analysis and interpretation. 4. RESEARCH OF UNIQUE ANTARCTIC SIGNIFICANCE IN BIOLOGICAL AND EARTH SCIENCES. Projects designed to further our understanding of Antarctic ecosystems have been a major focus of scientific work in Antarctica. Greenpeace has contributed to marine biological, limnological, and geomorphological research around Cape Evans. As part of the ship-based scientific programme, studies on birds and marine mammals have been carried out, and samples were collected for sedimentological research. A number of projects were carried out in McMurdo Sound as collaborative research, or designed to supplement ongoing studies of other Antarctic research programmes. 4.1. Contributions to biological research Biological studies in Antarctica supported by Greenpeace include research on: marine zooplankton and fish, Southern Ocean whales and birds, Antarctic freshwater lakes and microorganisms. These were specifically:- 4.1.1. Winter studies on the McMurdo Sound Ecosystem 4.1.2. Photo identification studies on Southern Ocean whales 4.1.3. Virological survey of pinnipeds 4.1.4. Studies of Antarctic birds 4.1.5. Limnological properties of two ponds at Cape Evans during winter freezing 4.1.6. Dispersal of non-indigenous algae to, and within, Antarctica 4.1.1. Winter studies on the McMurdo Sound Ecosystem The ecosystem of McMurdo Sound has been researched for several years by a working group from Auckland University, New Zealand. The group have been investigating the role of zooplankton in the ecosystem, especially in relation to the dietary intake of the demersal fish, Pagothenia bernacchii. Until now, their knowledge on zooplankton distribution and abundance has been based on observations during spring and early summer. The year-round presence of scientists at World Park Base has enabled Greenpeace to contribute to this research programme by addressing the questions of changes in the vertical distribution of zooplankton, and of prey detection by P. bernacchi, during the winter months. The zooplankton aspect of the project was designed by Brian Foster, Zoology Department, Auckland University. John Montgomery, of the same department, will analyse the fish specimens. A. Under-ice population of zooplankton in McMurdo Sound during winter The aim of the project was to gather information on the occurrence and vertical distribution of zooplankton under the sea ice during the winter darkness and to determine whether certain species of zooplankton rise to the surface during this time. (i) Methods Plankton samples were collected year-round (sea ice permitting), including the period of winter darkness, through a sea ice hole south of Cape Evans. Vertical hauls from different depths were carried out with a 300mm plankton net. Samples were preserved in a sea water solution of 4% formalin. Between March 1988 and January 1989, 53 plankton samples were taken in South Bay and from Home Beach at Cape Evans. A further 45 samples were taken between May and December, 1989. (ii) Preliminary results and discussion The majority of the 1988 samples have been enumerated, and a manuscript has been written addressing the question of which zooplankton species are near the sea surface during the winter. Despite logistics difficulties of winter field work on the sea ice, the samples provided data sets, which, in comparison with existing information on quantities of zooplankton in the November/December period, allow two conclusions (Foster, pers. comm.): Firstly, some species of large copepodes, including Euchaeta antarctica and Aetideopsis antarctica, seemed to occur at the surface in winter, but were not present during the daylight months. Some evidence also suggested that more Orchomene pinguides occur at the surface in winter. The numbers do not, however, indicate massive surface swarms in the antarctic night. The presence of these species can be related to light moderated vertical movements of the organisms themselves. Secondly, there was some evidence of seasonality in Ctenocalanus as it declined in numbers through the winter. Furthermore, the presence of juvenile Euphausia in a January sample would indicate a very different community structure in the height of summer. At this time it is likely that seasonality in population numbers of herbivorous zooplankton will be more immediately affected than carnivorous or detritivorous species. The possibility of incorporating the data into a wider paper that deals with problems of sampling through sea ice and including a guide to species identification is under consideration. B. The diet of Pagothenia bernacchii in winter The aim of the project was to gather information on the feeding habits of P. bernacchii during the Antarctic winter. (i) Methods Fish were caught in fish baskets left for 24 hours under the sea ice. Thirty-eight specimens were collected between June and December, 1989. The specimens were preserved deep frozen and their stomach contents preserved in a sea water solution of 4% formalin. (ii) Results The samples were forwarded to J. Montgomery, Zoology Department, Auckland University, and are currently under analysis. C. Seasonal abundance and growth of Limacina (Pteropoda) The aim of the project was to study the abundance and growth of the pelagic snail, Limacina (Pteropoda) in McMurdo Sound. Limacina has recently been noted as being important in this ecosystem (Foster, pers. comm.). A study was established in conjunction with research carried out in the area by R. Gilmer, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution, Fort Pierce, Florida. (i) Methods Pteropodes were collected in the late summer season of 1988/89 from under ice plankton samples, and from Home Beach, Cape Evans. In 1989, the project was incorporated into the zooplankton sampling programme. Twenty-six samples were taken between February, 1989, and February, 1990, using a 300mm plankton net in fast vertical tows from a depth of 40m. Work was carried out on the sea ice of North and South Bay. Samples were preserved in buffered formalin. (ii) Results There was some evidence of seasonality in Limacina as abundance declined through the winter and more juvenile forms were found in January. The 1988/89 samples of Limacina have been evaluated and used in the preparation of a publication (Gilmer and Harbison, 1990). The complete set of 1989 samples is still to be evaluated. 4.1.2. Photo-identification studies on Southern Ocean whales Traditional techniques for assessing whale populations have relied on lethal sampling programmes by the whaling industry and historic records. The Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) has stated that there is no need for further assessments of this kind. The most valuable assessments are those from sighting surveys. Some species of whales appear to have unique features that allow repeated identification with the aid of photographic records. Such non-lethal studies may provide a benign method of estimating population sizes as well as research into cetacean behaviour and ecology (Dorsey, 1989). Since 1987 records of whale sightings on Greenpeace voyages to Antarctica have been supplied to researchers. During Antarctic expeditions between 1989 and 1991, Greenpeace has contributed to photo-identification studies of whales. A. Minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) A study by the International Whaling Commission concluded that minke whales from the Antarctic, (and from the North Pacific), can be recognised from suitable photographs. A pilot study of minke whale identification was carried out during the 1988/89 Greenpeace Antarctic Expedition. Its aim was to assess the feasibility of using photographic identification methods from the MV Gondwana in the Southern Ocean. The material obtained during the 1988/89 expedition was evaluated by E. Dorsey, Conservation Law Foundation of New England, Inc., Boston. Only two individuals were photographed well enough to be re-identified due to an inability to photograph the whales at close range. It was recommended (Dorsey, 1989) that a photographic re-identification study commence at the sea ice edge. B. Orcas (Orcinus orca) Knowledge of the ecology of Southern Ocean orcas is very scarce and no population size estimates have been carried out. Findings of Soviet researchers suggest that there may be two different types of orcas in the Antarctic (Berzin and Vladimirov, 1982) similar to those described in the Pacific northwest. There, so-called residents and transients utilize the same waters, but in very different manners. Group size, behaviour, and vocalization of the different pods appears to be related to differences in prey choice (Felleman, pers. comm.). A study of Antarctic orcas could provide valuable insights into similar behavioural differences and be of great value for ongoing research on North Pacific stocks thus providing a significant contribution to our understanding of orcas world-wide. Therefore, observations were taken to determine population size assessments, the range of populations and whether stocks were resident to specific areas or transient. (i) Methods Pods of orcas were frequently sighted near the ice edge in McMurdo Sound in summer. Observations of orcas were made by the Greenpeace overwintering team at Cape Evans in 1988, and some photographs were taken. The prospect and methodology for a photo-identification study on Antarctic orcas was discussed with whale researchers F. Felleman, Whale Museum, Seattle, and Steven Dawson, Zoology Department, University of Otago, Dunedin. The 1990 overwintering team was provided with photographic training and technical equipment for a photo-identification project. (ii) Results Ice conditions and the expedition schedule prevented a photo study based on the sea ice. During the 1990/91 resupply of World Park Base at Cape Evans, photographs of orcas were obtained from onboard the MV Gondwana in McMurdo Sound. The photographs, and their value for re-identification of individual whales, are yet to be assessed. C. Humpback whales (Megaptera novaengliae) As with other whale species, populations of humpback whales in Antarctic waters were severely depleted during the past centuries. Information on their current population size and distribution is rare. Whale sightings on transect surveys and individual photographic identification are valuable means to determine the distribution and abundance of whales in order to monitor populations. The pigmentation of the ventral fluke of humpback whales is a distinctive feature used to identify individuals. Research on humpback and southern right whales, and other cetaceans, has been conducted and coordinated over several years in the Antarctic Peninsula region by G. Stone (Japan Marine Science and Technology Center, Yokosuka) working with a team of whale researchers, from the College of Atlantic, Bar Harbor, Maine. A very broad, world-wide, cooperative program on humpback whale identification involving scientists from the USA, UK, Japan, Colombia, Brazil, Australia, and other countries, contribute information and photographs to the research effort. Greenpeace has provided data for the programme from Antarctic expeditions in the summer season of 1990/91. (i) Methods During the 1990/91 voyage, observations were made at the time the MV Gondwana was in the Ross Sea area monitoring the activities of the Japanese whaling ship, the Nisshin Maru No. 3, and her three catcher boats and during three cruises in the Gerlache Strait, Antarctic Peninsula, between late February and mid April. On the latter cruises, a watch was carried out by two observers on each bridge wing of the ship. Using binoculars each observer covered an angle of 90o, from bow to beam. Positions were rotated several times throughout the day in order to reduce bias in the observations. Sighted humpback whales were cautiously approached from behind by one, or sometimes two, inflatables, in order to take photographs of the underside of the fluke when the animals dived. Former transects (Stone and Hamner, 1988) were reproduced whenever possible. On the first two cruises all encounters with humpback whales were recorded. On the third passage through the Gerlache Strait, an effort was made to obtain photographs of all sighted whales, in order to identify individuals by matching new photos with those of humpback whales collected at the College of the Atlantic, Bar Harbor, Maine. The locations of the specimens sighted were plotted on a map. During the day and a half that the ship was used for this study, 15 hours of observation were recorded. (ii) Results and discussion Several humpback whales were photographed from a helicopter by the ship's photographer on December 22, 1990, at ca. 63o 41' South, 166o 26' East. The humpback whales were at this time being followed by Japanese whaling catcher boats. A total of 60 humpback whales were sighted during the three cruises of the MV Gondwana through the Gerlache Strait. Not all the sightings provided whale fluke photographs due to the fact that most of the specimens did not show their flukes when diving. Only two of them were attracted by the presence of the boats, giving the photographers the chance to pick up particular details of each individual (e.g. scars on dorsal fin and other details). Two specimens were specifically identified and photographs of the flukes of two others were taken. In total, five photographs of humpback whales, suitable for identification of the individuals, were obtained. The photographs were evaluated by Judith Allen at the College of the Atlantic, Bar Harbor, Maine. One of the humpback whales could be re-identified. The individual had been previously photographed off the coast of Colombia in 1989 by Lilian Florez-Gonzalez, Fundacion Yubarta. This is only the third re-identification of an individual sighted both in the Antarctic Ocean and off Colombia. Humpback whale migration from the southern to the northern hemisphere has been reported by Stone et al. (1990). The observations suggest that individuals which feed in the southern hemisphere may breed with individuals from the northern hemisphere population. The possibility that individuals occasionally move between oceans (crossing the equator) has implications for gene flow and population differentiation. 4.1.3. Virological survey of pinnipeds The National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection, and the Seal Rehabilitation and Research Center of the Netherlands, have recently started a serological survey among a number of pinniped species from the northern and southern hemispheres. This survey is being carried out to determine the prevalence of a highly pathogenic virus isolated from harbour seals (phocid herpesvirus 1) and thought to have contributed to the large-scale mortality of seals in the North Sea. Neutralising antibodies against this virus have been detected in most of the species investigated, indicating that this virus occurs in all these species. In order to further evaluate the host range of the virus, samples from marine mammals from different geographical areas are being analysed by the Dutch researchers. Greenpeace agreed to supply samples from any animals found dead in Antarctica. According to the researchers, samples of serum or tissue from the lung, liver or kidney are still useful from carcasses in cold climates provided the animal died no more than three days before the sample was taken. An aborted foetus of a Weddell seal was found south of Cape Evans in April, 1988. The specimen (body length 29cm, body weight 364g) was sent to L. Vedder, Seal Rehabilitation and Research Center, Pieterburen, Netherlands, for a bacteriological and virological investigation. Tissue from the specimen was forwarded to P. Reijnders, Research Institute for Nature Management, Texel, The Netherlands, for toxic chemical analysis. No antibodies to viruses were found from this single specimen and the results of the bacteriological analysis were negative as well. 4.1.4. Studies on Antarctic birds The voyages of the MV Gondwana in the Southern Ocean between New Zealand and South America provide an opportunity to contribute to existing databases of at-sea sightings of marine birds used for determining migration periods and routes. Observations on bird colonies in the vicinity of Antarctic bases have the potential to contribute to our knowledge on human impacts on Antarctic birds. A. Ship based observations in the Southern Ocean Regular bird counts were conducted between Auckland and Ushuaia during the 1989/90 expedition and some observations were made in 1990/91.. (i) Methods In 1989/90, birds were counted for a ten minute period every hour during daylight using standard form sheets for ship based bird observations. Notes were also made on the birds associated with Russian fishing trawlers and longliners in the vicinity of Shag Rocks, WNW of South Georgia. In 1990/91, accidental bird mortality, due to longlining in the Shag Rock and South Georgia areas, was documented. (ii) Results The 1989/90 data show that the ranges of the Georgian diving petrel (Pelecanoides georgicus) in the Southern Ocean, and the Stejnegers petrel (Pterodroma longirostris) in the southeast Pacific Ocean, may be larger than originally thought (Harper, in prep.). Furthermore, a kelp gull (Larus dominicanus) was noted at 0400 GMT on December 21 at 60o 20' South, 165o 03' East. The position of this sighting is further south than the hitherto known range of the species (Graham, pers. comm.). Cape pigeons (Daption capense), black-browed mollymawks (Diomedea melanophris), wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans), southern giant petrels (Macronectes giganteus), Wilson's storm petrels (Oceanites oceanicus), black-bellied storm petrels (Fregetta tropica), and white-chinned petrels (Procellaria aequinoctealis) were all observed. Results of the ship-based counts will be submitted for publication by G. Harper, the ship's scientist on the 1989/90 voyage to the Antarctic Peninsula. Results of the monitoring in the 1990/91 season, of accidental deaths due to longlining, were presented at CCAMLR in 1991 (Greenpeace 1991b) and will be submitted for publication by J. Dalziell. B. Observations in the vicinity of Antarctic bases (i) Methods Rookeries were monitored at each base visited by the MV Gondwana in 1989 to provide baseline data on population characteristics of migratory and resident bird species. Observations on species present, numbers of individuals, and breeding pairs were recorded. In the vicinity of World Park Base at Cape Evans the local skua colony has been monitored as part of the study of environmental impacts of World Park Base. The work included observations on breeding patterns and behaviour of the skuas. Nesting areas have been mapped and records kept detailing arrival and departure dates, pair-bonding, presence and/or absence of chicks, territories, and feeding behaviour. A. Hemmings, Environmental Sciences, Auckland University, New Zealand, has advised on the project, and E. Young, Department of Zoology, at the same university, has been consulted in this context. In 1988 mapping and observations were started late in the season and abandoned after a blizzard that caused numerous breeding pairs to leave the area before the initial survey was completed. In 1989 a full record of the data was obtained to serve as a baseline for subsequent years. Observations were followed in successive summer seasons. In the summer 1991/92, skua nests with two eggs were marked by ornithologist G. Miller, Biology Dept., University of New Mexico, USA, as part of an ongoing study on reproductive success of skuas on Ross Island. In support of the project, some observations on numbers of abandoned nests and hatched chicks were provided by Greenpeace. In the first week of January, 1992, a survey was carried out at Cape Evans to determine numbers of nests, eggs, chicks, and to estimate the total numbers of skuas, including non-breeding birds. In addition, collections were made of items ingested and regurgitated by skuas. They include plastic, paper tissue, pieces of glass and wood and bones of non-indigenous birds and mammals. The material is likely, and in some cases known, to originate from McMurdo Station where large numbers of skuas can be observed feeding on galley food wastes and other waste that is stored inadequately. During surveys and field trips on Ross Island, Greenpeace overwinterers at World Park Base have regularly maintained records on arrival and departure of skuas and penguins in the area, on newly established breeding places, and on sightings of species that are uncommon in the area. (ii) Results Snow petrels (Pagodroma nivea) were sighted at Cape Evans several times in the summer of 1988/89 and again in 1991. This species is, however, not common on Ross Island where they are only occasionally sighted in summer. A newly established colony of Adelie penguins, with 3 breeding pairs and 6 chicks, was observed at Cape Barne, Ross Island in early February 1989. Emperor penguins (Aptenodytes forsteri) were also seen in winter at Inaccessible Island in 1988 but it could not be established whether or not they were breeding. C. Unusual mortality in a gentoo penguin (Pygoscelis papua) population, Ardley Island, Antarctic Peninsula As part of the CCAMLR Ecosystem Monitoring Program (CEMP), a study on a gentoo penguin colony is being carried out on Ardley Island, Antarctic Peninsula, by German researchers J. Ullbricht and B. Simon. The local gentoo penguin population of ca. 4000 birds live in rookeries on the gravel beaches of the island. The monitoring project involves observations on breeding success, chick weights, length of foraging trips, and mortality. Natural causes of mortality are also under study. In February, 1991, an unusual mortality rate among juvenile birds of ca. 70 days old (height 60cm, weight 5kg) was observed by the monitoring scientists. High mortality, reported to be common in young gentoo penguins when the birds are several days to several weeks old, was unknown for birds in this latter stage of development (Ullbricht, pers. comm.). The first dead specimen was found on February 21; after ca. one week, 100 dead specimens had been found. A pattern was observed of several dead birds being found at the same site. In March, 1991, the Greenpeace vessel MV Gondwana visited the area. The German researchers requested assistance in shipping specimens of dead gentoo penguins to analysing facilities. In collaboration with the researchers, Greenpeace scientists carried out a survey and collection of specimens. (i) Methods Dead penguins were collected from a rookery on a beach of ca. 500m length lying between two rocky headlands. Most of these birds were found landward of the present beach where there were abandoned nests. Some penguins were found dead on the beach, occasionally close to the reach of the waves and a dead floating gentoo penguin was reported in Maxwell Bay. The best preserved specimens of gentoo penguins were collected for further investigation. From a total of ca. 60 specimens found dead, 22 were taken, wrapped in plastic bags and preserved deep frozen. They were later transferred to the British Antarctic Survey ship, MV John Biscoe, en route from the resupply of British Antarctic bases, and shipped to the UK. A set of soil samples was also taken for heavy metals analysis. (ii) Results The specimens are being examined for infectious diseases, heavy metals, and organochlorine residues by Dr. James Kirkwood, Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London. 4.1.5. Limnological properties of two ponds at Cape Evans during winter freezing Coastal ponds are abundant in the ice-free areas of the McMurdo Sound region. Organisms inhabiting these ponds include benthic algae, cyanobacteria and other bacteria, a phytoplankton community of diatoms and flagellates, and a microfaunal assemblage of tardigrades, nematodes, protozoa and rotifers. Apart from early observations by Murray (1910), limnological information available to date has been confined to the brief summer melt period. However, physical and chemical changes during melting and freezing are known to be considerable (Vincent, 1982) although data from the winter months is lacking. The study at Cape Evans aimed to measure the physical and chemical conditions imposed on biological communities in coastal ponds during winter freeze-up. The work was carried out in collaboration with W. Vincent and C. Howard-Williams, Division of Water Sciences, DSIR, New Zealand, and S. de Mora, Chemistry Department, University of Auckland. (i) Methods Two lakes at Cape Evans (Fig. 1) were sampled at approximately weekly intervals over the period 23 February 1988-19 February 1989. Water was sampled at the midpoint of the water column through drilled ice-holes of 10cm diameter. Ice thickness, water depth and under-ice water temperatures were recorded in the field. Meteorological data were obtained daily at noon and midnight throughout the study period. Conductivity and pH were measured after which the water was filtered and the filters preserved deep frozen for later analysis of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and chlorophyll content. Unfiltered water (250ml) was preserved deep frozen for nutrient analysis and a further unfiltered sample (250ml) was preserved with Lugol's fixative for phytoplankton analysis. (ii) Results Results from the two ponds emphasised the severe environmental conditions imposed upon the biota during freeze-up and thaw. In the final stage of freeze-up the benthic and remaining planktonic organisms experienced salinities more than 5 times that of sea water at temperatures below -10oC. A large scale decrease in pH, and major changes in salt and nutrient composition, occurred in the same period. Early in the following melt period, the bottom water shifted toward lower conductivities, warmer temperatures and higher pH. Despite these sudden shifts of chemical and physical parameters in the aquatic environment, biological activity persists beneath the ice well into the winter months as measured by deoxygenation, pH decline, dissolved organic nitrogen and hydrogen sulphide production. The present study provides evidence that any organisms which persist throughout the year in Antarctic coastal ponds must be capable of surviving much more severe osmotic, pH and temperature conditions than those measured during the usual period of sampling in summer. Details have been published in "Antarctic Science" (Schmidt et al., 1991). 4.1.6. Dispersal of non-indigenous algae to, and within, Antarctica During the 20th meeting of SCAR, 1988, the sub-committee on Conservation of the Working Group on Biology expressed concern regarding the introduction of non-indigenous micro-organisms into the Antarctic environment (Broady, 1989). Introduction of alien species of algae is potentially harmful to indigenous flora as they are the primary producers in soils, rocks, and aquatic systems. At present, there is little information on the amount, and success, of introduced algae in Antarctica. A study to examine the introduction and dispersal by wind of non- indigenous microorganisms, including algae, to and within Antarctica was initiated by P. Broady, Department of Plant and Microbial Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. The project aimed to establish data on airborne indigenous species and identify the range and extent of introduced species. Since 1990, Greenpeace has collected samples for the study in various locations in the McMurdo Sound area. The sampling sites represented areas under anthropogenic influence as well as different natural environs. (i) Methods A frame holding a microslide coated with a fine layer of silicone was fitted to a windvane-like device on top of a post ca. 150cm above ground level. The vane kept the sticky silicone surface exposed to the wind such that all airborne particles collected on the slide. The silicone used is bacteriologically and chemically inert and remains sticky in temperatures as low as -50oC. During 1990, field collections were carried out in conjunction with other activities in the area, resulting in three different sampling schemes: Regular sampling was carried out at three locations on Cape Evans. The sites were near 'Skua Lake' in the vicinity of World Park Base; on the ice-cored moraine of the Barne Glacier; and on the sea ice of South Bay. The slides were changed weekly for most of the year. Long term sampling was carried out during spring and summer at locations on Ross Island and South Victoria Land. Two samplers were installed near the southern end of Hut Point Peninsula; one at Greenpeace's field station on the Ross Ice Shelf; and one on the sea ice off McMurdo Station. Three windvanes were erected in the Marble Point area at the following selected sites: the helicopter landing pad; the foot of the Wilson Piedmont Glacier closest to the landing pad; and the foot of the glacier some kilometres distance. The collectors were retrieved after a sampling period of several weeks. Short term sampling was undertaken by carrying a portable windvane during an expedition into the Wright and Taylor Valleys, South Victoria Land, in November, 1990. The windvane was left overnight, sampling some hundred metres upwind of the camp. The exposure period was, in most cases, ca. 12 hours. In this way, two sets of samples were obtained from Wright Valley between Lake Brownworth and Upper Wright Glacier, and from Taylor Valley between Explorer's Cove and Lake Bonney. A further, single sample, was obtained at Butter Point, on the surface of the Bowers Piedmont Glacier. At each site, wind conditions and characteristics of the soil surface were recorded and small soil samples were collected. All sample sets included blank samples to investigate contamination of the slide surface during preparation, collection, transportation, and storage of the samples. During 1991, weekly samples of airborne particles were collected from four sites at Cape Evans (Fig. 1). Two sampling sites in the vicinity of World Park Base were downwind and upwind of the station, respectively. The other two, in winds prevailing from the southeast, were on the Barne Glacier and the sea ice of South Bay. From the site upwind of the base, 38 slides were collected between January and mid-December, 1991. Of the site downwind of the station, 34 samples were obtained from mid-February to mid-December. In the same period, 40 samples were collected from the Barne Glacier site. At the South Bay location, 21 slides were collected between mid-May and mid-December. Collections to date, made by Greenpeace in the McMurdo Sound area, therefore include airborne particles transported above sea ice, glaciers, ice shelf, and ice free areas, both in the vicinity of bases and in remote areas. (ii) Results Samples from 1990 (150) and 1991 (133) have been presented to Broady for analysis. 4.2. Contributions to geological and geomorphological research Geomorphological studies carried out at Cape Evans from World Park Base were related to the glacial history and periglacial features of the landscape, the present temperature regime and nutrient input in soils and to seasonal changes of the shoreline. Further, samples have been provided for a geological study involving the comparison of glaciomarine sedimentation processes in both the Antarctic and Arctic. 4.2.1. Geomorphological studies at Cape Evans The deposits of the last ice sheet to occupy McMurdo Sound and the Ross Sea, named the Ross Sea drift, are dated at 20,000 years BP. They are usually ice cored and unweathered (Stuiver et al., 1981). The ice free area of Cape Evans is formed by kenyte lava from Mt. Erebus and is partially covered by glacial deposits. A working hypothesis has suggested that the glacial sediments at Cape Evans are ice cored and associated with the Ross Sea drift (Campbell and Claridge, pers. comm.). Local studies on the glacial history will contribute to the knowledge about the last glaciation in Western Antarctica. Geomorphological studies in the Cape Evans area will also provide baseline data on environmental parameters that are relevant for studies on the impact of World Park Base on the local environment. A. Glacial history and periglacial features Geomorphological observations, carried out during 1990 at Cape Evans were related to the landscape forming processes and events identified above. Those include lava flows, Ross Sea drift, and alternations of glacial advances and retreats in the younger geological history. At present, the landforms at Cape Evans are characterised by glacial and periglacial features and developed by soil forming processes, the interaction of land, sea ice and waves along the shore, and fluvial action. Wind and temperature are the main factors in soil forming processes. A geomorphological survey of the ice free area of Cape Evans was carried out in 1990. The surrounding Barne Glacier was studied and observations on outcrops of debris layers were made. The field work included mapping and geomorphological description of landforms, and the description and sampling of sediments. Soils and landforming deposits were described and sampled for sedimentological analysis. Glacial ice was sampled for studies on the ice microstructure. Two sets of aerial photographs of the Cape Evans area, taken from a helicopter at altitudes of 300m and 2000m were taken. Since 1990, typical periglacial features at Cape Evans, such as patterned ground, were studied to follow up earlier geomorphological research in the area (Berg and Black, 1966). Growth of underground ice wedges of patterned ground, and ablation of lake ice, were measured at regular intervals. Observations may allow conclusions on recent changes of the local climate and on the role of meteorological conditions in forming the landscape. Interpretation of aerial photographs, sedimentological analysis of samples, and evaluation of observations from 1990 is underway. B. Soil temperature monitoring Ground temperature is an important factor in soil weathering. The length of the period in which ground temperatures are above freezing point is critical for the development of Antarctic soils (Campbell and Claridge, 1987). Existing data on soil temperatures for the Ross Sea region have been taken at Cape Hallett, Vanda Station (Wright Valley), and Scott Base. Continuous records of temperatures in Antarctic soils are very rare. Chemical and biological reactions in the natural soil formation processes generally require unfrozen water. Imposed changes on the temperature regime in soils affect the natural soil development e.g. the depth of the permafrost increases under buildings and other ground constructions in polar regions. Disturbances to the soil surface, through human activities, can alter the physical properties of soils. Monitoring of soil temperatures in the natural environment, therefore, can provide valuable baseline data for the assessment of human impacts on Antarctic soils. Regular measurements of soil temperatures at Cape Evans have been carried out since 1990. The work has been done in collaboration with Broady and Greenfield who suggested, and advised on, the study. (i) Methods During 1990, soil temperatures were measured regularly in two distinct profiles of soils viz. volcanic bedrock and ice-cored moraine. Measurements were taken at the surface and at depths of 5cm and 40cm. During 1991, surface soil temperatures were recorded every other day at three sites (Fig. 1) represented by: snow-free and snow-covered ground above volcanic bedrock, and snow free ground above ice-cored moraine. At another site on volcanic bed rock, soil temperatures were recorded daily together with the climatological observations. The depth of the permafrost was determined at each site (by probing) prior to commencement of the monitoring project. Furthermore, in order to collect data on short term variations of soil temperatures as a function of meteorological parameters, Twenty-four hour monitoring projects were carried out at intervals of ca. 4 weeks between March and October. During such periods, soil temperatures at the four abovementioned sites together with meteorological data on air temperatures, wind speed and direction, cloud cover, and solar radiation were recorded every three hours. In addition, measurements from sites near Scott's Hut (mid-March to mid-June and mid-September to the end of December) and in the immediate vicinity of the main building at World Park Base (from mid-February to mid-March) were taken. (ii) Results The data sets from 1990 have been forwarded to Broady and Greenfield for analysis and interpretation. They will also receive the 1991 data. The soil temperature data taken at Cape Evans from January-November have also been supplied to I. Campbell, Land and Soil Consultancy, Nelson, New Zealand, to be incorporated into a databank on Antarctic soils currently being established. The data from the site near Scott's hut have been forwarded to the Antarctic Heritage Trust, Christchurch, New Zealand, to help assess environmental problems and to determine appropriate conservation measures for the historic site. C. Atmospheric nitrogen precipitation in Antarctic soils The input of organic nitrogen into Antarctic soils has been discussed by Campbell and Claridge (1987). Soils with microscopic plant life, taken from Victoria Valley, South Victoria Land, and described in detail by Cameron (1972), contain extremely low levels of organic carbon and nitrogen. Nitrogen content in protoranker soils, covered with macroscopic plant life, is considerably higher. Ornithogenic soils, formed from guano deposited at penguin rookeries, receive a very high influx of nitrate nitrogen (Tedrow and Ugolini, 1966) and are very different from other Antarctic soils. In many Antarctic soils, total nitrogen values are very often much higher than those of organic-bound nitrogen, due to the almost universal presence of water-soluble nitrate salts; this is particularly so in the Victoria valley (Campbell and Claridge, 1987). A second inorganic source of nitrogen is atmospheric nitrogen. The role of atmospheric nitrogen, deposited with snowfall, as a nutrient for Antarctic soils, is being studied by L. Greenfield, Department of Plant and Microbial Sciences, University of Canterbury. A sampling project, carried out at Cape Evans during 1990, has contributed to this research. (i) Methods Throughout the year, collections of snow were made following each snowfall, and from snowdrifts on the leeward side of rocks. The samples were melted in glass jars, acidified and concentrated. During the summer 1990/91, soil surface samples were collected from the locations where snow samples had been taken. (ii) Results The samples were analysed and the results are included in the paper "Precipitation of Nitrogen in maritime Signy Island and continental Cape Bird, Antarctica," submitted to "Polar Biology" (Greenfield, in prep.). D. Annual evolution of polar beaches Coastal landforms in South Victoria Land have been classified by Gregory and Kirk (1990) as high ice cliffs, high rocky cliffs, low rocky shores, landfast sea ice and beaches. Beaches were found to account for less than five percent of the shoreline. During most of the year, they are protected by an ice foot. Only for a short summer period are they exposed to wave action, however, they experience marked changes of form during that time. Beaches and low rocky shores are the main wildlife habitats and are also the preferred sites for human activity. The year-long presence at Cape Evans enabled Greenpeace scientists to monitor the changing profiles of beach sites. Observations provide useful information both for sedimentological studies on polar beaches, and for studies related to human impacts on natural landforming processes on Ross Island. (i) Methods Two beach sites at Cape Evans were regularly surveyed in February and March, 1990, and the following summer season, December 1990. Since January, 1991, the development of two further beach sites has been monitored. The selected sites represent a sandy gravel beach developed over volcanic bedrock, with few outcrops at the beach face and on the backshore; and a broader and less inclined sand beach recently affected by "ice bull-dozing." The depth of the permafrost layer has been determined along both profiles in 1991. After the break-out of the sea ice in North Bay on January 25, 1992, the two profiles were studied at the beginning of February and the early development of the new ice foot was observed. (ii) Results In the summer season 1991/92, the beach sites were free of ice formation only for a 10 day period, after which they started freezing up again. The upper parts of both profiles did not become exposed at all, but were still under snowcover from the winter 1991. However, preliminary evaluation indicates that changes of sedimentological features occur through "events," rather than through continuous development. Events causing shoreline development include blizzards, "ice bull-dozing," and unusual tides and waves e.g. high landward winds deposit alternating layers of snow and sand or gravel whilst high waves, including those triggered by calving from the Barne Glacier, re-deposit material from the littoral region onto the developing ice foot. However, in the case of the beaches, observation shows that all footprints, tracks etc. are gone after the winter. The snowcover, after retreating from the beaches in spring, reveals sediment re-worked by ice-movement removing all trace of human activity. The observations will be described and graphically documented to prepare them for publication. 4.2.2. Glaciomarine sedimentation on the Antarctic Shelf Current sedimentological research has found that recent glacially controlled sedimentation seems to deposit much finer sediments in the oceans in northern high latitudes than in Antarctica. Following studies in the Arctic Ocean near Svalbard and in Norwegian Fjords, a sampling project proposed by C.S. Filipowicz, Department of Geology, University of Warsaw, Poland has been extended to Antarctic waters. The aim of the project was to collect data to help determine the glacial and non-glacial origin of marine sediments by determining the amount of certain clay minerals suspended in the water column. Eleven samples were taken during the voyage of the MV Gondwana to the Ross Sea between 60o and 77o South. On the return voyage from Ross Island to New Zealand, 3 samples were taken off the coast of Victoria Land in February, 1992. The samples were filtered, and the particulate matter sent to Filipowicz for analysis. 5. CONTRIBUTIONS TO DATA BASES. Observations carried out by the Greenpeace overwintering team at World Park Base, Cape Evans and by the crew of the MV Gondwana on voyages through the Southern Ocean have been forwarded to existing data bases. They include data on climate, aurora australis occurrences, nacreous and noctilucent cloud formations, sea ice development, and iceberg abundance. 5.1. Climatological observations Climatological data from remote areas, such as Cape Evans, are not readily available. Weather conditions at Cape Evans differ from even the nearest stations that maintain meteorological records e.g. Scott Base and McMurdo Station which are situated ca. 30km south of Cape Evans. The climatological observations at Cape Evans add to the knowledge of weather patterns in the McMurdo Sound region and provide data on meteorological parameters needed for various studies in the area. (i) Methods Two Stevenson screens, located east of the World Park Base building, house dry and wet bulb thermometers, minimum- and maximum thermometers, and a thermohygrograph. Air pressure is read from a mercury barometer and recorded by a barograph. Wind speed readings are available from an anemometer with a maximum gust indicator. Daily observations were made at 0900 local time and the data logged in the "Field Book for Climatological Observations" (Met. 303, 1078) of the New Zealand Meteorological Service. The following observations were made: air pressure, air temperature, minimum and maximum temperatures since last reading, relative humidity, wind direction and speed, cloud amount and types, and depth of snow following fresh snow falls. Soil temperatures at the meteorological screen were also recorded at 0900. Short descriptions of weather characteristics were noted for six hour periods throughout the day. The maximum gust for the last 24 hours was recorded at midnight, and the amount of solar radiation received in 12 hours was also recorded at noon and midnight. The records were forwarded annually to the New Zealand Meteorological Service, where they were archived with other Antarctic meteorological data collected by the Research and Development Division of the New Zealand Meteorological Service and are available for meteorological organisations and researchers. (ii) Results Weather data from four consecutive years at Cape Evans, including the 1991 observations, will be available. Monthly parameters of mean and minimum temperatures, measured at World Park Base, Cape Evans, 1988-91 are shown in Table 11 whilst monthly mean wind speeds and maximum gusts are shown in Table 12. TABLE 11: Monthly mean and minimum temperatures recorded at World Park Base, Cape Evans, 1988-91. Month Mean Temperature Min. Temperature [degree C] [degree C] 1988 1989 1990 1991 1988 1989 1990 1991 Jan _ -2.1 -2.0 -1.8 _ -10.5 -9.6 -9.8 Feb -7.4 -4.8 _ _ -17.0 -10.6 March-16.1 -13.5 -13.9 -15.3 _ -22.5 -24.8 -25.9 April-15.5 -16.6 -18.6 -18.8 -32.0 -34.5 -31.9 -42.1 -32.0 15 _ May -18.8 -21.1 -20.0 -22.7 -34.0 -37.8 -30.7 -57.4 June -19.6 -27.3 -22.9 -18.7 _ -38.1 -37.2 -61.6 July -23.8 -24.0 -24.0 -24.8 -38.5 -41.0 -35.0 -43.0 Aug -18.3 -26.6 -28.9 -36.0 -40.2 -41.8 Sept -18.3 -23.5 -27.6 -33.5 -38.1 -37.5 Oct -12.1 -15.0 -17.2 -32.5 -28.0 -33.5 Nov - 8.5 -8.2 -7.3 -22.0 -17.8 -21.3 Dec - 2.9 -1.9 -1.7 -18.0 -9.1 -14.7 a20 recorded days TABLE 12: Monthly mean windspeeds and maximum gusts recorded at World Park Base, Cape Evans, 1988-1991. Month Mean windspeed [knots] Maximum gust [knots] 1988 1989 1990 1991 1988 1989 1990 1991 Jan _ 16 10 14 _ 50 33 44 Feb _ _ 19 16 _ _ 53 55 March 20 15 20 14 _ 49 59 59 April 15 21 14 18 _ 80 60 58 May 17 16 16 16 69 98 61 85 June 24 12 16 17 78 71 75 74 July 17 15 12 16 82 65 66 72 August 24 13 12 12 68 88 65 77 Sept 19 14 15 17 81 72 62 73 Oct 20 17 16 16 67 64 60 73 Nov 14 19 13 17 44 59 52 68 Dec 14 13 18 - 50 49 52 - a20 recorded days It is planned to publish the results in an Antarctic or meteorological journal. 5.2. Aurora australis observations Observations of aurorae from Cape Evans and the McMurdo Sound region are considered valuable due to the position south of the auroral zone. Latitudinal movement of the auroral zone during periods of activity can be evaluated when these data are combined with reports from Sub-Antarctic islands (auroral zone) and New Zealand (north of auroral zone). A log on the occurrence, colour, size and shape, position, and time length of aurorae australis was, therefore, kept. During 1991, colour photographs were taken on several occasions to supplement the descriptive records. The logs were forwarded to the Aurora Section of the Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand. The observations provided by the overwintering teams at World Park Base 1988-1990 have been published in circulars of the Society (Evans and Jones, 1991). The 1991 records are awaiting evaluation. 5.3. Nacreous clouds Nacreous clouds, also referred to as "mother-of-pearl clouds," are stratospheric clouds and are known from regions in northern Europe where they have been observed in winter. The clouds are usually lenticular in form and display brilliant colours. Their distinguishing feature is an iridescence which remains visible after sunset. The colouring is exceptionally brilliant if the angular distance of the cloud from the sun is less than 40o. Nacreous clouds are a rare phenomenon and their geographical distribution is very restricted (The Marine Observer's Handbook 1981). Therefore, observations were made of nacreous cloud formations. Records on the occurrences include time of sightings, description of the clouds and photographic documentation. The Marine Observer's Handbook recommends the recording of nacreous cloud sightings, including: size and shape of the clouds, their position and angular distances from the sun, and the distribution of colours. Greenpeace overwintering teams at Cape Evans found nacreous cloud occurrences to be restricted to a short period before and after sunrise in August. During this period, displays of nacreous clouds are very brilliant and at times cover up to half of the sky. The data is being forwarded to the Astronomical Society of New Zealand. 5.4. Noctilucent clouds Noctilucent clouds are believed to consist of water-ice condensed around nuclei of meteoric and, possibly, volcanic origin. They lie at heights of between 82-85 km above the earth's surface. It has been suggested that noctilucent clouds have become more common in recent years. This more frequent occurrence of noctilucent clouds has been linked to rising levels of water vapour in the atmosphere due to increasing levels of industrially-released methane. Noctilucent clouds may therefore serve as an indicator of changes in the atmosphere (Bone, 1988). Noctilucent clouds observed in 1991 at Cape Evans were photographed. The data is being forwarded to the Astronomical Society of New Zealand. 5.5. Sea ice reports to the US Navy/NOAA Joint Ice Center Observations of sea ice conditions, necessary for navigational safety, are used in preparation of long range forecasts for the McMurdo region. Observations on type, development, range, and thickness of sea ice were relayed weekly to the US Navy/NOAA Joint Ice Center. These data have been used in the preparation of the annual ice atlas. The Joint Ice Center has requested Greenpeace to continue this effort for as long as Greenpeace maintains a presence in the Antarctic. 5.6. Iceberg observations Records of sightings of icebergs have been kept during voyages between New Zealand and Ross Island in the summer seasons 1990/91 and 1991/92, and on the voyage from New Zealand to the Antarctic Peninsula in 1991 for an "Iceberg Observation Programme" coordinated by the Norwegian Polar Research Institute. This programme was endorsed by the SCAR Working Group on Glaciology in 1981. The data were collected in an effort to assess mass balances of the Antarctic ice sheets. Icebergs were counted from the bridge of the MV Gondwana every six hours in conjunction with the meteorological observations. The size of the icebergs was estimated and classifications were made according to size. The size of the larger bergs was determined using sextant and radar. Notes on rock sediment in the icebergs and the degree of tilt were kept. 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