TL: TAKING BACK OUR STOLEN FUTURE: HORMONE DISRUPTION AND PVC PLASTIC SO: Greenpeace International, (GP) DT: May, 1996 Keywords: environment toxics plastics pvc chlorine health / Taking back our stolen future Hormone disruption and PVC plastic Greenpeace April 1996 Greenpeace International c/o Greenpeace UK Canonbury Villas London N1 2PN Telephone: 0171 354 5100 Fax: 0171 696 0012/14 Contents 1. Introduction 5 2. The hormone system 10 3. Evidence of effects in humans and wildlife 12 4. Hormone pollutants and PVC 14 5. Dioxin and hormone disruption 15 6. The link between PVC and dioxin 16 7. Phthalates and hormone disruption 19 8. Phthalates and PVC 20 9. PVC alternatives 21 10. Phasing out PVC 23 11. What should be done 25 12. Appendices 27 13. References 34 14. Notes 37 1 Introduction/summary The quality of mens sperm declined steadily in the early years of the 21st century until hardly anyone could reproduce in the normal way. Meanwhile, the countryside was virtually emptied of animals as natural populations crashed. The first signs of the impending catastrophe were noted in the 1990's, but few people then believed that a cocktail of pollutants that mimic human hormones could have such profound effects. And so nothing was done until it was too late (This chilling scenario was hypothesised in the New Scientist, 1995) Over the last few years, an increasing number of reports have appeared about reproductive problems in both wildlife and humans. Reports of alligators with malformed reproductive organs,1 feminisation of fish in UK rivers 2 and changes in the mating behaviour of gulls 3 have appeared alongside studies showing a decline in human sperm count and sperm quality,4 an increase in testicular cancer and genital abnormalities, such as undescended testicles 5, and a rise in the incidence of breast cancer in women. 6 The conclusion of many of these studies is that man made chemicals in the environment are suspected to be interfering with hormonal systems in both humans and wildlife.7 Hormones are chemical messengers which control or mediate vital bodily functions. The hormonal system regulates the development of vital functions in the foetus including the reproductive organs, the immune system and intelligence and behaviour. It is our children that are most at risk. Persistent chemicals in the mothers body pass through the placenta to the foetus.8 The developing foetus is also more susceptible to the adverse effects of any pollutants, because it is growing rapidly and is immature in a number of its bodily functions.9 Many chemicals are also passed through the mothers breast milk to the nursing infant.10 It has been estimated that an infant which is breast fed for one year will receive between 4 and 12% of its total lifetime exposure to dioxins.11 As Dr Theo Colborn says in her newly released book Our Stolen Future Children have the right to be born chemical free. 12 As the evidence about wildlife and human health effects accumulates, the list of chemicals identified as synthetic hormone disruptors has also grown longer. These chemicals can work in different ways; for example, among those that disrupt sex-related functions, many mimic the female hormone oestrogen (and have a feminising effect). Others might be anti-androgens (which would block testosterone and have a demasculinising effect). Unlike natural hormones, some of these synthetic hormone disruptors build up in body fat, are highly resistant to breakdown, and accumulate through the food chain. Natural hormones are broken down once their message has been delivered; persistent hormone pollutants can cause damage over and over again. Synthetic chemicals known to be hormone disruptors :13 numerous pesticides, many of them synthetic chlorinated chemicals, such as DDT, lindane, methoxychlor, chlordane, dieldrin, hexachlorobenzene, kepone ,14 dicofol, kelthane, synthetic pyrethroids, and triazines (eg. atrazine). Breakdown products of some pesticides can also cause hormonal disruption. PCBs, industrial chemicals used as heat transfer and hydraulic fluids, flame retardants, dielectric fluids for capacitors and transformers. Production in the US was banned in 1977 & they are no longer produced. dioxins and furans, an accidental by-product of the chlorine industry, especially the manufacture, disposal and combustion of the chlorinated plastic PVC. They are also organochlorines bisphenol A (a key ingredient of the plastic polycarbonate, which is produced using chlorine and phosgene. It is an ingredient in the coating inside some tin cans, some reusable milk bottles, and in dental fillings), alkylphenols (a breakdown product of industrial detergents) phthalates, chemical plasticisers extensively used in PVC and food packaging materials. At least 95% of DEHP, the most common phthalate, is used in PVC plastic15, which is a product of the chlorine industry. Over three million tonnes of phthalates are consumed every year 16 and they are found throughout the environment. 17 butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) a food anti-oxidant. Chlorine and PVC Many of the chemicals known as hormone disruptors are linked to the manufacture of chlorine. Some such as DDT, Lindane and 2,4-D pesticides are produced intentionally. But others, dioxins and furans, for example, are accidental by-products of numerous processes which produce, process, or dispose of materials containing chlorine, such as the chlorinated plastic PVC. These chemicals are all called organochlorines. Many hormone disruptors have already been banned such as PCBs, or restricted in some countries, such as DDT. In contrast, the chlorinated plastic PVC, responsible for two significant hormone disruptors, is still a common consumer product D the second most common plastic used today. The world market for PVC plastic is still growing at a rate of 5% annually,18 particularly in East Asia.19 Dioxin, a highly potent synthetic hormone disruptor, is generated during the production and disposal of PVC, and also during accidental fires. Phthalates, used in making soft PVC products, are the most common of the hormone disruptors, in terms of the quantity found in the environment. PVC plastic uses the largest quantities of the phthalates. Virtually all uses of PVC plastic are avoidable. By choosing alternatives to PVC, which are readily available, and thus ending the production of PVC, we could dramatically reduce the levels of these hormone disruptors entering the environment. We don't need to risk our childrens health, their future, or the environment, by delaying action, as proposed by industry and some governments. No safe dose Many current regulations designed to protect human health are based on risk assessment, which attempts to determine safe doses of individual chemicals doses which will not cause unacceptable levels of clearly identifiable health effects such as cancer. This is a permissive approach trying to identify how much pollution you can expose people to without making too many of them ill. The same approach is used when pollutants are released by industrial processes into the environment. Again the assumption is made that there is a safe level of pollution that the environment can cope with. Such safe limits also don't take into account the total release of pollutants throughout the life cycle of a product from production, through to its use and disposal. Time and again, it has been found that this permissive approach does not work. For example, it was impossible to predict the damage caused to the ozone layer by CFCs. Scientists did not predict that many chemicals which were thought to be safe at the doses individuals were exposed to would disrupt hormone systems and have the potential to cause permanent damage to developing children. Regulators and industry may have to accept that there are not necessarily safe doses of many of the chemicals that are produced. To date, only a few of the tens of thousands of man-made chemicals produced have yet been tested for their ability to disrupt the hormonal system.20 Time for precautionary action Definition of precautionary principle. In Article 2 of the OSPAR Convention, the signatories agreed that: The contracting parties shall apply: The precautionary principle, by virtue of which preventive measures are to be taken when there are reasonable grounds for concern that substances or energy introduced, directly or indirectly, into the marine environment may bring about hazards to human health, harm living resources and marine ecosystems, damage amenities or interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea, even when there is no conclusive evidence of a causal relationship between the inputs and the effects. The traditional risk assessment approach, which does not even begin to address the problem of hormone pollution, is no longer valid. New strategies are needed, based on the precautionary principle, which calls for preventive action against chemicals where there is any evidence of harm. It means that all efforts should be taken to prevent the release of these chemicals into the environment, particularly those which persist and build up in human bodies, and can therefore be passed on to the next generation. In practice, this will mean ceasing to manufacture or use them. In line with the precautionary principle, some communities, local and national Governments are already acting to phase out products which use or release these chemicals. For example, in November 1995, the Swedish Parliament voted to phase out plasticised PVC and rigid PVC with harmful additives, because PVC is not a part of an ecological society.21 The question is not whether to phase out PVC but how PVC should be phased out 22 Swedish Environment Minister, Anna Lindh, November 1995. This report explains the links between PVC plastic and two significant hormone disruptors dioxin and phthalates. It also highlights the available alternatives and points to action that can be taken to avoid the risks that PVC presents to the hormonal systems of human and wildlife. 2 The hormone system The body's hormone system, also known as the endocrine system, is a complex internal chemical messenger system, which regulates vital functions such as our reproductive systems, behaviour, and immune systems. In particular, the hormone system controls the development of these vital functions in the unborn child. Hormones are produced by a variety of glands in different parts of the body and released into the blood stream. The hormones bind to special receptors in organs or tissues and cause them to respond in a specific way. Hormones are extremely powerful, having effects at levels of only parts per trillion. But in our bodies, concentrations of hormones are strictly controlled. One of the most familiar hormones is adrenaline, which is released in response to danger or stress and which prepares the body for swift action the fight or flight reaction. Also well known are the sex hormones. The female hormones progesterone and oestrogen control the menstrual cycle, pregnancy and childbirth. The male counterpart, testosterone, is responsible for masculine libido and behaviour. The sex hormones are also vital for the correct development of each child's reproductive system in the early stages of life. The primary function of most hormones are known, but there are complex interactions and subtle effects that scientists do not yet fully understand. However, it is becoming clear that a large number of industrial chemicals have the ability to disrupt this intricate control system, with potentially disastrous results for health and well-being. The best studied chemicals are those which are oestrogen mimics or, simply, oestrogenic. These chemicals can disrupt the development of the reproductive system if given to the mother at the critical period of pregnancy; for example in animals exposed to the phthalate BBP (butyl benzyl phthalate)23 and in humans exposed to the synthetic hormone DES (diethylstylbestrol). Daughters born to mothers who took DES suffer increased rates of a rare vaginal cancer, and both sons and daughers experience congenital abnormalities of their reproductive systems.24 It is a complex area of research: It's a major nightmare trying to unravel what is going on, to find out how much oestrogen is present and what its consequences are 50 years of research is needed.25 Other chemicals may act in other ways, such as by counteracting male hormones. These are known as anti-androgens, which can block the effects of testosterone and affect the development of the male reproductive system.26 Hormone disruptors can also act by preventing hormones from being produced, accelarating the breakdown and elimination of hormones, and interfering with the breakdown process so that they cant be excreted.27 3 Evidence of effects in humans and wildlife Over the last three years there have been several reports that sperm count has been seriously reduced in humans.28 Sperm quality has also been affected.29 Environmental factors, including hormone disruptors are suspected to be an important factor in this decline.30 One possible way that this could happen is through the reduction of the number of Sertoli cells in the testes. Since these cells support the sperm cells as they develop, less Sertoli cells means less sperm.31 The industry often cites studies that show that other factors are responsible, for example heat, driving, and conclude that chemicals cannot be considered a factor.32 Lifestyle may indeed be a factor for some men. However, if these were overriding factors it could be expected that older men, who would have been affected in these ways for much longer, would have a lower sperm count. In fact, studies show a real sperm count drop in younger men.33 Further, animal studies demonstrate that dioxin 34 octylphenol, DES and BBP 35 reduce sperm counts. Lifestyle can hardly be considered a factor in animals. In addition, attempts are sometimes made to confuse the issue. As reported by the German PVC industry,36 a National Institute of Health seminar in Norway came to the conclusion that there is no evidence at all of disruptions to male procreative capacity. These claims are highly misleading, as reports have been concerned with the phenomena of reduced sperm counts, and reduced fertility has not been widely observed, although if the trend continues a decline in fertility is possible.37 It is not possible at this time to link specific chemicals directly to these reductions. There are probably many factors, including lifestyle, that could play a part alongside environmental contaminants. However, the evidence strongly suggests that hormone disrupting chemicals are involved and, further, that dioxins and phthalates can have these effects if administered before birth.38 Hormone disruptors, especially organochlorines, are also thought to be to influencing a rise in reproductive problems in wildlife, and have been shown to cause adverse effects on animals in laboratory experiments. In July 1991, Theo Colborn invited a group of 20 scientists to discuss their research. To their surprise, the scientists all agreed that, in their individual research, they were seeing evidence that industrial chemicals in the environment were harming the endocrine systems of fish, birds and mammals. They issued a consensus document, now known as the Wingspread statement, which began39: We are certain of the following: A large number of man-made chemicals that have been released into the environment, as well as a few natural ones, have the potential to disrupt the endocrine system of animals, including humans. Among these are the persistent, bioaccumulative, organohalogen compounds that include some pesticides (fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides) and industrial chemicals, other synthetic products, and some metals. Many wildlife populations are already affected by these compounds. The impacts include thyroid dysfunction in birds and fish; decreased fertility in birds, fish, shellfish, and mammals; decreased hatching success in birds, fish and turtles; gross birth deformities in birds, fish and turtles; metabolic abnormalities in birds, fish, and mammals; behavioural abnormalities in birds; demasculinization and feminization in male fish, birds, and mammals; defeminization and masculinization of female fish and birds; and compromised immune systems in birds and mammals. 4 Hormone pollutants and PVC Some of the chemicals known to disrupt the hormone system are used mainly in industrial applications rather than in consumer products and only indirectly reach the consumer, through releases into the environment and food chain during the production process and/or use. There is one product, however, which is produced in quantities of millions of tons per year, and which is routinely made into consumer products. It is PVC. There are two main groups of hormone disrupting chemicals associated with PVC. During the production, disposal and combustion of PVC, large quantities of dioxins are formed as an unwanted by-product.40 Dioxin already has a reputation as the most toxic man- made chemical ever. Most attention has focused on dioxin's carcinogenicity, but it is also a potent hormone disruptor. The other group of hormone disruptors associated with PVC is the phthalates.41 These are plasticisers - chemicals mixed in with the PVC to soften it and make it flexible. In addition to dioxin and phthalates, other substances suspected as hormone disruptors are also used as additives in PVC plastic, including the organotins, cadmium, lead 42 and small quantities of alkylphenols. Alkyl phenols are used as a process chemical in the polymerisation of vinyl chloride monomer (VCM).43 PCBs can also be created as by-products during the manufacture or disposal of PVC plastic.44 5 Dioxin and hormone disruption Dioxin has been looked at most closely in relation to its cancer-effects, but a large body of evidence has also established its abilities as a potent hormone disruptor. Dioxin toxicology is complex. The basic mechanism of action via a receptor known as the Ah receptor is well established, but the detailed biochemical routes by which its various effects take place are not yet fully understood. Most research has been carried out on the most toxic form of dioxin, 2,3,7,8-TCDD, which is also sometimes called TCDD or simply dioxin. Hormone disruption caused by dioxins TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) is known to be an anti-androgen. Several animal studies indicate that 2,3,7,8-TCDD affects the levels of reproductive hormones (see US EPA 1994 for review). In adult men that have been exposed to dioxins at work, levels of testosterone were reduced.45 The ability of dioxin to affect testosterone levels also has implications for the unborn male. When pregnant rats were given just one dose of dioxin, on a particular day of pregnancy, the male offspring had lowered levels of testosterone 46 and a reduced sperm count.47 Their sexual behaviour was also demasculinised and feminised.48 While not all the reasons for these changes have been discovered, alteration of the levels of testosterone and other hormones at the critical time for the development of the male reproductive system is thought to be an important factor. 49 Worryingly, the effects of dioxin on male animals affected before birth seem to be permanent.50 This indicates that the timing of the dose is critical and may be more important than its concentration; extremely low levels can cause permanent damage at particular stages of development. Dioxin is also known to alter the concentrations of thyroid hormones in animals51 and new-born human babies.52 Correct functioning of the thyroid and its hormone systems are essential for correct development and growth in children including the developing central nervous system and brain. Possible effects of disruption of the thyroid hormones include low birth weight, hyperactivity, impaired learning and memory. Again, damage before birth may cause changes that are permanent.53 6 The link between PVC and dioxin Dioxins are now present throughout the environment and the food chain; everyone is exposed to them in their diets, particularly through fatty foods such as dairy products.55 The evidence is reviewed in the Greenpeace report Body of Evidence; the effects of chlorine on human health.56 Dioxins produced in the PVC lifecycle will enter the global environment and build up in the food chain, becoming part of the everyday exposure that the whole human and animal population is now subjected to. PVC, which is the second most common plastic, is used in numerous different products. The largest quantity is used in building materials, such as cables, floorings, window frames, water pipes and wallpapers. It is also used in packaging, including food packaging, furniture and children's toys. PVC is linked in numerous ways with the formation and release of dioxin, as follows: a) Manufacturing by-products It has been known since 1989 that dioxin is produced in the manufacturing of the chemicals from which PVC is made. It was first discovered by Erik Evers; his investigations showed that dioxins were generated in the oxychlorination process, a fundamental step in the PVC production chain.57 This results in contamination of the liquid wastes. ICI, who uses this process at their plant at Runcorn, in the north-west of England, described the oxychlorination process and the creation of dioxins as by-products, as follows: The reactions include all of the ingredients and conditions necessary to form (the dioxins) PCDD/PCDFs, i.e. air or oxygen, a hydrocarbon (ethylene etc.), chlorine or hydrogen chloride, a copper catalyst, an ideal temperature and an adequate residence time. It is difficult to see how any of these conditions could be modified so as to prevent PCDD/PCDF formation without seriously impairing the reaction for which the process is designed.58 The wastes produced at ICI's plant contain high levels of dioxins.59 Greenpeace found a similar picture in 1994 when they investigated the PVC industry in the USA.60 Despite having been identified as a dioxin source, however, very little research has been done on the PVC industry. Nevertheless, where it has been done, there always appear to be problems. Although dioxins are produced by other processes such as incinerators, the dioxins produced by the oxychlorination process have a very clear fingerprint which can often be tied to dioxins found near factories. In the Netherlands, the manufacture of vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) caused extensive dioxin contamination of Rotterdam harbour.61 In Venice, Greenpeace analysed sediment from the Porto Marghera. It clearly showed contamination of the lagoon with dioxin by the Enichem plant, where VCM is among the chlorinated chemicals manufactured. After conducting their own sampling, the authorities were so concerned about the findings that they have closed down the wastewater treatment plant responsible for the releases while they conduct further investigations.62 Greenpeace has also found that local mussels have been contaminated with the typical PVC industry-type dioxins. Consequently, these pollutants may be entering the human food chain. In Germany, the Environmental Ministry of Lower Saxony 63 found extremely high levels of dioxins in sludges from the waste water treatment plant for EVC's PVC production at Wilhelmshaven. Dioxin was also found in a dump where these sludges were disposed. In addition to dioxin resulting from the PVC production process, whenever PVC is burned (either deliberately by incineration or accidentally in fires), or is recycled (for example, when metals such as copper or steel are recycled), they can contribute to emissions of dioxin into the environment, as follows: b) Accidental fires PVC causes dioxin formation at accidental fires, when PVC is present in building materials or furnishings. The German EPA recommended in the long run, PVC products should be substituted by other materials in all areas where the potential dioxin and hydrogen chloride formation in case of fire poses a substantial risk for human health and the environment.64 c) Recycling and Disposal During the recycling or disposal of products containing PVC, dioxins can be released. Numerous PVC compounds, or combinations of PVC with other materials, have been identified as potential dioxin sources. These include PVC + paper (e.g. wallpaper), PVC + copper (cables), PVC + wood (furniture), PVC + steel (cars), etc.65 The reasons for the dioxin formation are numerous. c PVC coated (wall) paper and wood (furniture) is often burned in the open by individuals in their back yards, or by companies in inadequate furnaces that are not suited at all for burning such hazardous wastes (no scrubbers, low temperature incineration etc.) 66 The German EPA requires all furnaces, (from household fires to industrial furnaces) to be free of material containing chlorine, such as PVC.67 c The presence of PVC in steel products leads to the release of large amounts of dioxin when these products (for example, cars) are scrapped and sent to (secondary) steel mills for steel recycling. While of course metal recycling is an important and reasonable practice to cut down primary steel production and conserve raw materials, the environmental impact of steel recycling is greatly increased when scrap metal is contaminated with chlorinated compounds, including PVC plastic.68 c Also secondary copper smelters recycling PVC contaminated copper scrap (for example, PVC coated cables) are a major source of dioxin contamination in the environment via dioxin emissions. This is partly because the formation of dioxin is catalysed by the presence of copper. Copper smelters are recognised as an important dioxin source. For example, in February 1988, the regional authorities responsible for the Austrian copper smelter of Montanwerke Brixlegg AG issued a ban on the use of PVC containing material to cut down on dioxin emissions. This resulted in an immediate reduction of one third of these emissions. 69 In addition, in many parts of the world, cable scrap is burned in the open air. For example, in 1994 Greenpeace discovered that imported PVC cables are recycled in the slums of Jakarta, Indonesia simply by burning the PVC off the cables in big steel drums in people's backyards.70 d) PVC and incineration PVC is usually the main source of chlorine in the municipal waste stream, in the form of packaging, household products, old furniture and fittings, and therefore is the main contributor to dioxin formation in municipal waste incinerators.71 Another important dioxin source is hospital incineration. For example, the US EPA listed hospital incinerators as the No. 1 dioxin source in the US.72 Looking at the feedstock of hospital incinerators, PVC medical products are a major source of chlorine. PVC is used in hospitals in many disposable products such as tubing systems, blood and infusion bags, gloves and often also packaging. The practice of burning those medical products (which often also contain the phthalate DEHP) leads to the release of dioxin from hospital incinerators. 7 Phthalates and hormone disruption The phthalates are a group of compounds used to soften PVC and make it more flexible. They have already been identified as priority substances under some legislation because of their toxicity, which includes possible carcinogenicity.73 However, they have also recently been added to the list of chemicals which mimic the female hormone oestrogen. Not all of the phthalates in use have been tested for their ability to disrupt hormones. However, three phthalates tested by one group of researchers (bis(2- ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP)) were all weakly oestrogenic. They may still be toxicologically important because of the high doses to which people may be exposed. A related compound, bis-(2- ethylhexyl)adipate (DEHA), was also oestrogenic. All four of these compounds are used in PVC products.74 BBP has also been shown to reduce the testicular weight and function of rats exposed via their mother before and shortly after birth. Sperm production was also reduced.75 The phthalates are known to be toxic to developing embryos, causing malformation and death.76 The death of foetuses caused by butylbenzyl phthalate appears to be linked to reduced levels of progesterone, a female hormone essential for the control of pregnancy.77 Phthalates are global polluters. DEHP can be found anywhere in the sea, lakes and rivers as well as in the rain, the soil and sediments all over the globe.78 For example, they have been found in Antarctic sediments,79 and in air over the Pacific and Atlantic oceans.80 They are thought to be the most abundant environmental contaminants.81 Phthalates are persistent and can bioaccumulate, so generalised environmental contamination can lead to exposure of humans through food. Phthalates and other oestrogenics such as DEHA used in food packaging can also be directly transferred into food.82 8 Phthalates and PVC Large quantities of phthalates are produced each year. Globally, it is estimated that the world consumption of phthalates is 3.25 million tonnes, and that of this quantity, DEHP accounts for about 2.1 million tonnes.83 In Germany alone 250,000 tonnes are produced annually, with BASF being the biggest German producer.84 In the USA, it is estimated that 300 million pounds of phthalates are produced every year about 270 million pounds of this is DEHP.85 The major chemical companies producing DEHP and PVC are listed in Appendix 1. Phthalates can be released into the environment not only by the factories that manufacture them, but during the processing of plastics that contain them, during the products life and even after it is disposed of.86 The highest volume phthalate produced is DEHP (di- ethyl-hexyl-phthalate) which represents between 50 and 90% of DEHP phthalate production.87 In 1993, at least 95% of DEHP produced was used as an additive for PVC plastic.88 Phthaltes in general and DEHP in particular are used as a plastic additive, a softener, to produce soft PVC products such as PVC (vinyl) floorings, wall paper, cable coatings, toys, packaging and fashion goods. Although the phthalate DEHP has to be labelled in the European Union as environmentally hazardous because of its toxic properties and its persistence,89 there are no regulations restricting the use of DEHP, and products containing DEHP are not labelled. Some products, for example, mouldings and sealants, can contain up to 60% of the total weight of plasticiser, making it the single largest part of the product, even more than the PVC itself.90 With phthalates the usual approach of reducing or minimising emissions from the production process does not work. The German EPA stated that: As the greater proportion of emissions is released diffusely from products containing DEHP as a plasticiser, including principally PVC, regulatory measures must be imposed at this point. We are therefore of the opinion that the use of DEHP plasticiser must be considerably restricted.91 No time should be wasted as the current environmental concentrations in compartments with release potential are already so high that they may cause environmental damage. 92 9 PVC alternatives Taking into account that the annual global PVC production is about 20 million tonnes and about half of the raw PVC is processed to make soft PVC products containing plasticiser, the contribution of PVC to the quantities of hormone disruptors released into the environment is very large. It is also avoidable for the vast majority of uses. Alternatives to virtually all PVC products exist. The following chart gives an overview of the main substitution materials for the most frequent PVC applications. All of these products are effective substitutes for PVC, however, in some cases, environmental considerations should also be taken into account, for example, with aluminium, which is uses large amounts of energy during raw material processing. It is generally preferable to select natural products such as wood or glass, rather than other chlorine free plastics, except when these are not available. It is important to ensure that wood, for example, is sourced from sustainable forest resources. PVC product substitution material WINDOWS wood (pine, larch, fir, spruce, beech), chlorine free plastics FLOORINGS ceramic tiles, wood, parquetry, linoleum, rubber, stoneware tiles, cork, sisal hemp, terrazzo (Venetian wash), chlorine free plastic (polyolefine) WALLS brickwork, pebble dash, wood, gypsum plaster board WALLPAPER uncoated paper (made from chlorine free recycled fibres), environmentally sound paints, paper wallpaper with protective coating on acrylate base, ceramic tiles FACADES, CURTAIN WALLS plaster, wood ROLL JOINTS, HAND RAILS wood, metal FURNITURE wood, metal BLINDS, SHUTTERS wood, wooden shutters, textile blinds inside, etc. WEATHER/DRAUGHT STRIPS natural rubber DOORS AND WINDOWS SEWAGE PIPES concrete, earthenware, stoneware, polyethylene and polypropylene pipes SANITARY INSTALLATIONS earthenware pipes, stoneware, steel, cast iron, (e.g., pipes, pipe casing) copper pipes, polyethylene and polypropylene pipes ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS chlorine free plastics like PE, special rubber & CABLES ROOF SHEETING polyolefins, bitumen sheeting PACKAGING if packaging is necessary, reusable packaging, cardboard, wood if plastic is necessary, PE, PP MEDICAL PRODUCTS change from disposable (usually PVC) to reusable products e.g. redon bottles; reusable scalpel handles, refillable glass bottles; if disposable products are necessary, for example tubings and blood bags, chlorine free plastics like PE gloves, or latex, natural rubber, PE infusion bags, PE bags. TOYS Wood, textiles. 10 Phasing out PVC A large number of communities and states have restricted the use of PVC, showing that it is possible to use alternative materials. In addition, some national Governments have also taken action for a wider ban on PVC. PVC free Communities Germany: The first PVC free community was Bielefeld, in 1987. Since then, restrictions on PVC have grown and about 200 communities and states now have PVC restrictions in place. Australia: The Sydney 2,000 Olympics is committed to environmental criteria based on the concept of ecologically sustainable development, including: OA commitment to minimise the use of PVC. In particular, no PVC to be used in plumbing and drainage pipes or flooring material (vinyl).94 Austria: 6 States and regional capitals, including Vienna, and at least 11 smaller communities have resolutions to avoid PVC. Japan: Abiko City and Narasino City assemblies have passed resolutions to reduce the use of PVC. In addition the Chiba prefecture and Nakano congress have also passed similar resolutions. Luxembourg: The City of Luxembourg authorities avoid PVC, although there is no formal resolution. A PVC free construction working group, with representatives from several Government Ministries, has existed since 1993. Netherlands: 17 Dutch communities have signed a declaration to avoid PVC, 147 have also stated they will avoid PVC wherever possible; these include Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Utrecht and Den Hague. Norway: Norway's second biggest town Bergen made a decision in 1991 to phase out PVC. Sweden: 128 communities in Sweden have agreed to avoid PVC, including Gothenberg. Denmark: The county of Aarhus have introduced a policy of buying PVC free alternatives for all public purchases. National commitments Spain: The Spanish Senate has asked the government to substitute the use of PVC in packaging with other non polluting materials and to make a study on the risks of PVC and the possibilities of a PVC phase out in Spain. Switzerland: In 1992, the Swiss Government banned the use of PVC mineral water bottles, after a voluntary scheme set up by industry failed. Despite challenges by the PVC industry, the Supreme Court rejected their case and upheld the ban. Denmark: The Danish Parliament is currently considering a proposal by the Socialist People's Party to phase out PVC by 2000. The Danish Minister, has put forward thoughts along the same lines. Sweden: In November 1995, the Swedish Parliament voted to phase out both soft and rigid PVC speedily, following a recommendation from the Committee for Agriculture, which stated: The Committee's opinion is that it is possible to make an overall assessment of today's PVC in all its parts from chlorine manufacture to waste. It is the Committee's opinion that such an overall assessment shows that PVC cannot be part of an eco-cycle society. Today's plasticised PVC, as well as rigid PVC with environmentally harmful additives, should therefore be phased out. The phase out should begin speedily. 11 What should be done The stakes are so high here that I don't believe we can wait and I can imagine twenty years from now, the grandchild coming to us and saying: well, you knew this was going on with animals, why didn't you do anything about it? Can we afford to say well, we were waiting to confirm this state in humans? And I think the answer is no, we shouldn't be waiting, we should be doing something now. Dr Ann Soto, BBC Horizon, 1996.96 As has been demonstrated by progressive countries, industries and communities, it is possible to take steps to address hormone disruption. The first and most immediate step is to phase out PVC plastic, and replace it with readily available alternatives. all policy, both national and international must be based on the precautionary principle, which takes action when there are reasonable grounds to suspect that adverse effects may be occurring or may occur. other countries must follow the example of Sweden and begin a PVC phase out. countries around the North Sea, who are already committed to eliminate the emission of all hazardous substances within 25 years under the North Sea Ministers' Conference 1995, should prioritise PVC for phase out. the US Environmental Protection Agency, which is currently re-assessing dioxin, should take the lead with an action plan to phase out products which result in dioxin pollution, with the priority on PVC. an international instrument which addresses the elimination of Persistent Organic Pollutants D many of which are hormone polluters such as dioxin needs to be negotiated urgently. This process has already begun with the Washington Declaration, which was agreed at a UN Sponsored meeting in November 1995, attended by 100 countries. It identified the need to eliminate Persistent Organic Pollutants, with the priority on 12 dirty dozen chemicals, all of them organochlorines, which include dioxins, PCBs and several pesticides. Industry should clearly label PVC to identify what it is to the consumer alternatives should be labelled PVC or chlorine free. consumers, local authorities and retailers should stop buying PVC where they can identify it, and where it is impossible to identify, avoid plastics. The easiest way to identify PVC is by the number 3 in the recycling symbol, however, not all PVC is identified in this way. 12 Appendices TABLE OF MAJOR EUROPEAN AND US PRODUCERS OF DEHP AND PVC COMPANY NAME & LOCATION COUNTRY CHEMICAL Auseon Pty. Ltd., Altona, Victoria Australia PVC ICI Australia Operations Pty. Ltd. Australia DOP Rhodes, New South Wales DIOP ICI Australia Operations Pty. Ltd. Australia PVC Botany, New South Wales ICI Laverton North, Victoria Australia PVC BASF Antwerpen NV, Antwerpen Belgium PVC LVM NV, Tessenderlo, Limburg Belgium PVC Pantochim S.A., Feluy, Hainaut Belgium DEHP Solvic snc, Jemeppe sur Sambre Namur Belgium PVC UCB-Ftal sa, Oostende Belgium DEHP West Vlaanderen Spolana, Neratovice, Stredocesky Czech Rep. PVC Neste Oy, Chemicals, Porvoo, Finland DEHP Uusimaa Neste Oy, Polystyrene, Porvoo, Finland PVC Uusimaa Elf Atochem SA, Chauny, Aisne France DEHP Elf Atochem SA, - Balan, Ain. - Brignoud, Isere - Saint Auban, Alpes Maritimes - Saint Fons, Rhone France PVC Shell Chimie SA, Berre-l'Etang, Bouches du Rhone France PVC Societe Artesienne de Vinyle SA, Mazingarbe, Pas de Calais France PVC Solvay SA, Tavaux, Jura France PVC BASF Aktiengesellschaft Germany DEHP, PVC Ludwigshafen, Rheinland -Pfalz BUNA GmbH, Schkopau, Sachsen-Anhalt Germany DEHP, PVC EVC (Deutschland) GmbH, Wilhelmshaven Niedersachsen Germany PVC Hoechst Aktiengesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main, Hessen Oberhausen, Nordhein-Westfalen Germany DEHP Huels Aktiengesellschaft, Marl Nordhein-Westfalen Germany DEHP,PVC Solvay Kunststoffe Gmbh, Rheinberg Nordrhein-Westfalen Germany PVC Vinnolit Kunststoff Gmbh, - Burghausen, Bayern - Burgkirchen, Bayern - Hurth, Nordhein-Westfalen - Koln, Nordrhein Westfalen Germany PVC EKO-Hellenic Refineries and Chemicals of Macedonia Industrial and Commercial Company AE Thessaloniki Greece PVC Borsodchem Rt, Kazincbarcika, Borsod-Abauj-Zemplen Hungary PVC EVC (Italia) SpA, - Brindisi, Puglia - Porto Marghera, Veneto - Porto Torres, Sardegna - Ravenna, Emilia-Romagna Italy PVC Industrie Generali SpA, Samarate Lombardia Italy DEHP,PVC Lonza SpA, San Giovanni Valdarno, Toscana Italy DEHP Solvay SA, Ferrara, Emilia-Romagna Italy PVC Societa Italiana Serie Acetica Sintetica SpA, Pioltello, Lombardia Italy DEHP Asahi Glass Company Ltd Japan PVC Central Chemical Company Ltd, Kawasaki, Kanagawa Japan PVC Chisso Corporation, Minamata, Kumamoto Mizushima, Okayama Japan PVC Chisso Petrochemical Corporation, Ichihara, Chiba Japan DEHP, PVC Denki Kagaku Kogyo K.K., Ichihara, Chiba Japan PVC Henkel Hakusui Corporation, Sashima, Ibaraki Japan DEHP Japan PVC Ltd, Senboku, Osaka Japan PVC Kaneka Corporation, Kashima, Ibaraki, Settsu, Osaka Takasago, Hyogo Japan PVC Kawasaki Organic Chemical Co., Ltd, Kawasaki, Kanagawa Japan PVC Kureha Chemical Industry Co., Ltd, Iwaki, Fukushima Japan PVC Kyowa Yuka Company Ltd, Yokkaichi, Mie Japan DEHP Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Company Inc. Misushima, Kurashiki, Okayama Japan DEHP Mitsubishi Kasei Vinyl Company, Kurashiki, Okayama Yokkaichi, Mie Japan PVC Nippon Zeon Company, Ltd, Misushima, Kurashiki, Okayama, Takaoka, Toyama Japan PVC Shin-Etsu Chemical Company, Ltd. Kashima, Ibaraki Japan PVC Sumitomo Chemical Company, Ltd, Ichihara, Chiba Nihama, Ehime Japan PVC Sun Arrow Chemical Company, Ltd, Tokuyama, Yamaguchi Japan PVC Toagosei Chemical Industry Co., Ltd, Tokushima, Tokushima Japan PVC Toho Rika Kogyo K.K. Nagoya, Aichi Japan DEHP Tokuyama Sekisui Co., Ltd, Shin-Nanyo, Yamaguchi Japan PVC Tosoh Corporation, Shin Nanyo, Yamaguchi Japan PVC DSM Resins Benelux BV, Hoek van Holland, Zuid Holland Netherlands DEHP LVM Limburg BV, Beek-Geleen, Limburg Nethelands PVC ROVIN vof, Rotterdam-Pernis, Zuid Holland Netherlands PVC Norsk Hydro a.s., Petrochemicals Division, Heroya, Telemark Norway PVC Zaklady Azotowe Kedzierzyn SA Kedzierzyn-Kozle, Opole Poland DEHP Zaklady Tworzyw Sztucznych Boryszew D Erg, Warszawa Poland DEHP Zaklady Azotowe Wloclawek Poland PVC Wtoctawek Zaklady Azotowe W Tarnowie- Moscicach SA, Tarnow Poland PVC Zaklady Chemiczne Oswiecim, Bielsko- Biata Poland PVC Companhia Industrial de Resinas Sinteticas, CIRES SA, Estarreja, Aveiro Portugal PVC GDP, Lisboa Portugal DEHP Chemicke Zavody Novacke sp, Novaky, Stredosovensky Slovak Rep. PVC Aiscondel, SA, - Monzon del Rio Cinca,Huesca - Vilaseca, Tarragona Spain PVC BASF Espanola SA, Tarragona Spain DEHP Compania Espanola de Petroleos, SA, Luchana-Baracaldo, Vizcaya Spain DEHP Elf Atochem Espana SA, - Hernani, Guipuzcoa - Miranda de Ebro, Burgos Spain PVC Hispavic Industrial SA, (owned by Solvay) Martorell, Barcelona Spain PVC Hydro Plast AB, Stenungsund, Goteborg-Bohus Sweden PVC Neste Oxo AB, Stenungsund, Gotegorg-Bohus Sweden DEHP European Vinyls Corporation (Switzerland) AG, Sins, Aargau Switzerland PVC BP Chemicals Ltd, Hull, Humberside UK DEHP European Vinyls Corporation (UK) Ltd, - Barry, South Glamorgan, Wales - Fleetwood, Lancashire - Runcorn, Cheshire UK PVC Hydro Polymers Ltd, Newton Aycliffe, Durham UK PVC Aristech Chemical Corporation, Chemicals Division, Neville Island Pennsylvania USA DEHP BASF Corporation, South Kearney New Jersey USA DEHP Borden Chemicals and Plastics Operating Limited Partnership, - Geismar, Louisiana - Illiopolis, Illinois USA PVC Certain Teed Coproration, Lake Charles, Louisiana USA PVC Eastman Chemical Company, Tennessee Eastman Division, Kingsport Tennessee USA DEHP Formosa Plastics Corporation, - Baton Rouge, Louisiana - Delaware City, Delaware - Point Comfort, Texas USA PVC The Geon Company, - Deer Park, Texas - Henry Illinois - Louisville Kentucky - Pedricktown, New Jersey USA PVC Georgia Gulf Corporation, Delaware City, Delaware USA PVC Plaquemine, Louisiana The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company Chemical Division, Niagara Falls, New York USA PVC Hatco Chemical Company, Fords, New Jersey USA DEHP Huls America Inc, Chestertown, Maryland USA DEHP Keysor-Century Corporation, Santa Clarita, California USA PVC Occidental Chemical Corporation, Polymers and Plastics, Vinyls Division, - Addis, Louisiana - Burlington, New Jersey - Pasadena, Texas - Pottstown, Pennsylvania USA PVC Shintech Incorporated, Freeport, Texas USA PVC Teknor Apex Company, - Brownsville, Texas - Hebronville, Massachusetts USA DEHP Union Carbide Corporation Solvents and Intermediates, Texas City, Texas USA PVC Vista Chemical Company, Olefins & Vinyl Division, Aberdeen, Mississippi Oklahoma City, Oklahoma USA PVC Westlake PVC Corporation, - Calvert City, Kentucky - Pace, Florida USA PVC US VCM and EDC maufacturers @ Borden Chemicals and Plastics USA EDC, VCM Geismar, LA Dow Chemicals USA, Freeport, TX USA EDC, VCM and Oyster Creek, TX Dow Chemicals USA, Plaquemine, LA USA EDC, VCM Formosa Plastics Corp. USA EDC, VCM Baton Rouge, LA Formosa Plastics Corp. USA EDC, VCM Point Comfort, TX Geon Vinyl (BFGoodrich) USA EDC, VCM La Porte, TX Georgia Gulf Corp. USA EDC, VCM Plaquemine, LA Occidental Chemical Corp. USA EDC Convent, LA Occidental Chemical Corp. USA EDC, VCM Deer park, TX Oxymar, Ingleside, TX USA EDC, VCM PPG Industries Inc. USA EDC, VCM Lake Charles, LA Vista Chemical Company USA EDC, VCM Lake Charles, LA Vulcan Chemicals USA EDC Geismar, LA Westlake Monomers Corp. USA EDC, VCM Calvert City, KY * = Percentage of regional capacity for the top fifty percent of capacity ** = capacity given is for company as whole, not location specific. Source: SRI International, 1995 Directory of Chemical Producers, Europe, and United States., Source: US Department of Health and Human Services, Toxicological Profile for DEHP, April 1993. @ Source: Costner P et al. 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Toxicol. 22:397-413 14 Notes 1 Guillette et al. ,1994 2 Jobling et al, 1995 3 Fox, 1992, Geisy et. al., 1994 4 e.g. Carlsen et al. 1992, Auger et al, 1995 5 Giwercman and Skakkebaek, 1992 6 Harris et al., 1992 7 Danish EPA, 1995 8 e.g. Jacobson et al, 1985, Ando et al., 1986, Kanja et al, 1992, Koopman-Esseboom et al., 1994 9 South West Environmental Protection Agency, 1995 10 Hall, 1992 11 US EPA, 1994 12 Colborn et. al, 1996, p. 212 13 Danish EPA, 1995, unless otherwise noted 14 Danish EPA, 1995 15 US Dept. of Health and Human Services, DEHP, 1993 16 Danish Technological Institute, 1996 17 German EPA, 1994 18 Modern Plastics, 1995 19 European Chemical News, 1996 20 Danish EPA, 1995 21 Swedish Parliamentary Standing Committee on Agriculture, 1995 22 Swedish Environment Minister Anna Lindh, November 1995 23 Sharpe et al, 1995 24 Colborn and Clement, 1992 25 Dr John Sumpter, of Brunel University, quoted in New Scientist, 1995 26 Kelce et al., 1995 27 Colborn et al., 1996 28 Carlsen et al., 1992, Auger et al., 1995, Irvine et al., 1996 29 Auger et al., 1995 30 Sharpe & Skakkabaek 1993, Auger et al., 1995, Irvine et al. 1996 31 see e.g. Sharpe & Skakkabaek, 1993 32 Arbeitsgemeinschaft PVC und Umwelt e.V., 1996 33 Auger et al. ,1995, Irvine et al., 1996 34 Mably et al., 1992c 35 Sharpe et al., 1995 36 Arbeitsgemeinschaft PVC und Umwelt e.V., 1996 37 Augur et al., 1995 38 Mably et al., 1992c, Sharpe et al., 1995 39 Colborn and Clement, 1992 40 Evers, 1989, Fluthwedel & Pohle, 1993 41 Jobling et al, 1995 42 Danish Technological Institute, 1996 43 Danish Technological Institute, 1996 44 Dow Chemical Company, 1981, Goldman, L., 1994 45 Egeland et al., 1994 46 Mably et al., 1991, Mably et al., 1992a 47 Mably et al., 1991, Mably et al., 1992c 48 Mably et al., 1991, Peterson et al., 1992, Mably et al., 1992b 49 Mably et al., 1991, Peterson et al., (1992) 50 Gray et al., 1995, Peterson et al., 1992, Mably et al., 1992a,b&c 51 Porterfield, 1994 52 Pluim et al., 1992, 1993 53 Porterfield, 1994 54 Iwata et al, 1993 55 Rappe, 1992, Henry et al, 1992 56 Allsopp et al., 1995 57 Evers, 1989 58 ICI, 1994 59 ICI, 1994 60 Stringer et al., 1995 61 Wenning et al., 1992 62 Fortuna, Judge, 1995 63 Environmental Ministry of Lower Saxony, 1994 64 Fluthwedel & Pohle, 1993 65 State Committee for Emission Protection, 1993 66 Wilken, 1994 67 German EPA press release, 1994 68 Angrick & Batz, 1994, U.Lahl, personal communication, 1993 69 Riss, A, 1990 70 Bokerman, 1994 71 Wagner et al, 1993, Danish Technological Institute, 1996 72 US EPA, 1994b 73 see e.g. Meek & Chan, 1994a,b&c 74 Jobling et al., 1995 75 Sharpe et al., 1995 76 Hansen & Grafton, 1994, Ema et al., 1995 77 Ema et al., 1994 78 German EPA, 1994 79 Deisder, 1991 80 Atlas et al., 1981 81 Jobling et. al. 1995 82 Sharman et al., 1994, Gilbert et al., 1994 83 Danish Technological Institute, 1996 84 German EPA, 1994 85 US Department of Health, 1993 86 German EPA, 1994 87 US Department of Health and Human Services, 1993, Danish Technological Institute, 1996 88 US Department of Health and Human Services, 1993 89 Directive 92/69/EEC 90 Danish Technological Institute, 1996 91 German EPA, 1994 92 German EPA, 1994 93 Modern Plastics, 1995 94 Olympic Co-ordination Authority, 1996 95 Swedish Parliamentary Standing Committee on Agriculture, 1995 96 Horizon, 1996