Your emotional response to the text I sent you does not tell 
me where my chemistry is wrong. I do indeed know the 
difference between the origin of life and speciation. I was 
thoroughly trained in evolutionary biology @ UCSD-and I 
believed it. However, no one has, to date, shown that one 
species has become genetically isolated from its predecessor 
by mutation and natural selection or by the process of 
recombination of previously existent genetic material. The 
only exception that comes close is the development of 
polyploidy from diploidic plants in the wild. The 
polyploidic plants cannot breed with their anscestors-as I'm 
sure you well know. However, is the polyploidic variety more 
fit than its predecessors. If such a global genetic 
transformation were to occur in a human being they would 
most certainly need custodial care.
The other examples of speciation (e.g. Darwin's finches and 
various Hawiian birds) are not genetically isolated from 
their predecessors. They can be bred with resultant viable 
offspring.
If you know of any examples of true speciation I would love 
to know of about them. By speciation I mean a true genetic 
isolation not just a physical barrier to breeding such as 
size. Great Danes and Chiuahas (? spelling) are the same 
species but do not breed in the wild. This represents 
variation within a kind.

Let's deal with chemistry, biology and physics-not emotional 
criticisms. 
I do not believe that I can prove God's existence-Such 
belief is ultimately based on faith. If God's existence was 
provable then it would also be falsifiable-which is 
impossible.
No scientific or emotional arguments (eg. why does God allow 
pain and suffering) can prove or disprove God's existence, 
and all true thinkers know this.
attached are the two files in "text only format" let me know 
what you think-No holds barred (except emotional ones)
Sincerely 
Mark Eastman, MD
909-601-6072
1	The Creator Beyond Time and Space

The Origin of Life-The Hardware	1

1


Chapter Three
The Origin of Life
The "Hardware"
And the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living being. .i.Genesis 2:7; 
F
rom early childhood, humans develop a fascination with things that crawl, slither, walk, swim and fly. Eventually, we all ponder the question of our own origin. Since the time of the early Greeks, the debate has raged regarding the cause of life on earth. Scientific materialists assert that life was caused by the interplay of time and natural laws (chance chemistry) acting on non-living matter. As some have put it, the fortuitous occurrence of accidental circumstances. On the other hand, creationists view the origin of life as the product of intelligent design by a Creator who transcends our space-time domain. This Creator pierced the veil of our four-dimensional universe, then applied information or biochemical know-how onto matter at the time of creation. Consequently, incredibly complex mechanisms such as brains, kidneys, eyes, hearts, and lungs are viewed as either the result of careful design and forethought, or the products of blind, undirected, chance chemistry. Intelligent design or chance chemistry? When all the frills are stripped away, this is the fundamental question in the debate on the origin of life.1
In the fourth century B.C. the Greek philosopher, .i.Aristotle;, argued that the design we see in living systems is evidence for a divine designer. In the thirteenth century A.D. .i.Thomas Aquinas; included the design principle (called the teleological argument) among his four arguments for the existence of God. In modern times the assertion that design in biology requires a designer was presented in its classical form by .i.William Paley; in his watchmaker argument.2
Paley pointed out the many parallels between machines and the structures found in living systems. He argued that if we were to find a watch on the ground we would never conclude that it simply arose by a chance combining of atoms. The various gears, springs, and mechanisms in the watch obviously require a designer. Paley argued that since life on earth has every appearance of contrivance or machine-like design, there must have been a designer for such life.
.i.David Hume; attacked this long-accepted argument for design head on. Hume argued that the complex, machine-like structures found in living plants and animals have only the appearance of design. According to Hume, they were only superficially like machines, but natural in essence.3 These non-machines, he argued, were natural and therefore needed no designer-creator.  Hume argued that the teleological argument for God would only hold true if organisms were deeply analogous  at the molecular level  to machines as we know them. 
Since the molecular structure of living systems was not known at the time of Hume and Paley, there was no way to verify Paleys claim that living systems were, in fact, machines. Consequently, for nearly two centuries, scientific materialists and philosophers have maintained that Paleys argument is not valid and the God hypothesis is superfluous.
However, in the last half of the twentieth century, astonishing discoveries regarding the molecular structure and function of living systems have brought the materialistic, random-chance origin of life scenario into serious question. In the field of molecular biology, discovery after discovery has revealed that living systems contain structures which conform in every way to the modern definition of a machine. In fact, the parallel between machines and living systems has now been shown to extend all the way to the molecular level.
Molecular biologist .i.Michael Denton; stated in 1986:
Although the tiniest bacterial cells are incredibly small, weighing less than 10-12 grams, each is in effect a veritable micro-miniaturized factory containing thousands of exquisitely designed pieces of intricate molecular machinery, made up altogether of one hundred thousand million atoms, far more complicated than any machine built by man and absolutely without parallel in the non-living world.4 (Emphasis added)
According to Nobel Laureate .i.;Jacques Monod,.i.; machines are purposeful (teleonomic) aggregates of matter that use energy to perform work.5 Clocks, gasoline powered engines, refrigerators, etc., are all machines. And the sum total of experimental science and engineering knowledge confirms that all machines are the result of purposeful design by an intelligent source. The theory of evolution asserts that inanimate matter, which possesses no concepts, know-how, or purposefulness, developed into machines by chance! In no field of science except neo-Darwinian biology  is it believed that machines can arise by chance.
The Scope of the Problem
For over one hundred years the primary focus on the question of lifes origin has been to explain the origin of the incredibly complex molecules which accomplish the reproduction, repair, and metabolism of living things.6 Any viable theory on the random-chance origin of life must explain the origin of this chemical hardware. However, the question of lifes origin is much more complex than just explaining the origin of the molecular machinery found in living cells.
Like a computer, living systems require much more than just hardware to function. They also require software or coded instructions to direct the activities of the cellular hardware. Like a computer, this software needs to reside within each living system. Unlike a computer, living systems also possess the marvelous ability to reproduce and pass to the next generation both the hardware and the software. 
During the time of .i.Charles Darwin;, scientists suspected that such software or coded instructions must exist in living systems. However, the actual structure of the cellular hardware and the source of the cellular instructions were not known. When the structure of the DNA molecule was deciphered by .i.James Watson; and .i.Francis Crick; in 1953, a revolution in our understanding of cellular growth and metabolism began.7 Since that time, molecular biologists have conclusively demonstrated that the growth and metabolism of all life on earth is carefully controlled by a language convention (or system) called the .i.;Genetic Code.i.; which is carried by the .i.;DNA.i.; molecule.8 
Like all language conventions, the genetic code has rules and regulations which govern the actions of the cellular hardware. The question is where did this code and the rules by which it is governed come from? In the last fifty years the field of information theory has shed a great deal of light on the nature of codes and programs. It turns out that one of the basic tenets of information theory is that all language conventions are the result of intelligent forethought or design. Consequently, random chance, which is the antithesis of intelligent design, will never generate a code or a language convention  including the genetic code. This fact poses a serious threat to the materialistic scenario on the origin of life.
The enormous task faced by the materialist is this: any theory which attempts to explain the origin of life in the absence of a Creator, must be able to explain the origin of the machine-like molecular hardware, as well as the enormously complex, coded information found in all living systems without the introduction of know-how, concepts, contrivance or intelligent design. As we will see, this task has proven so formidable that it has led some molecular biologists to despair, some to absurdity, and some to a divine Creator for the solution to the problem.
.i.Spontaneous Generation
The atheists scenario on the origin of life proposes that some four billion years ago, inanimate chemicals developed by chance into highly complex, living, single-celled organisms. It is generally believed to have occurred somewhere in a primordial ooze, near deep hot oceanic vents or in a shallow tidal pool. 
This process has been dubbed Spontaneous Generation. According to evolutionary theory, this single-celled organism then evolved into all the complex life forms on earth in a relentless struggle for resources. Darwin called this process descent with modification. 
The evolutionary development of life on earth is commonly depicted in biology textbooks as an evolutionary tree. If life did arise spontaneously and then evolve into increasingly complex life forms, then spontaneous generation represents the trunk of that evolutionary tree and the branches are the various species that evolved from these earlier forms. If the origin of life cannot be shown to be plausible by the interaction of matter, random-chance, energy and time alone, then the existence of an evolutionary tree is a dubious proposition at best. Without a trunk there can be no tree. Invoking any metaphysical (miraculous) events into the scenario violates evolution in its purest form. 
>From Mud to Man?
The notion that life could arise from inanimate, non-living matter is not a recent idea. This idea was seriously proposed in the sixth century B.C. by the Greek philosopher, .i.Anaximander;. He argued that life arose from mud when it was exposed to sunlight, and that it subsequently evolved into all life forms, including man.
During the dark ages people speculated that rats and flies arose spontaneously from garbage because they mysteriously appeared when garbage was left out. Others had noticed that when meat and broths were left exposed they became covered with maggots and microorganisms. These observations led some to believe that these life forms arose suddenly and spontaneously from non-living, inanimate matter. However, by the late 1700s many scientists began to question the idea of spontaneous generation.
Many, including Charles Darwins grandfather, .i.Erasmus Darwin;, felt that the difference between the living and the non-living world was the presence of some life force. In fact, many thought that it was the mere presence of electricity in living matter that separated it from non-living matter. Many experiments were done with electricity to try to create life spontaneously from non-living broths. This fascination led to the Frankenstein story of the late 1800s. 
.i.Louis Pasteur; entered the debate in 1862 when he published the results of his experiments on the spontaneous generation of microorganisms in broths. Using swan-necked glass flasks, Pasteur showed that previously boiled broths remained uncontaminated with microorganisms unless the neck of the flask was broken. Broken flasks quickly teemed with life as the broths became cloudy. The work of Louis Pasteur seemingly ended the debate on the question of the sudden, spontaneous origin of life. 
By the end of the nineteenth century, the majority of scientists believed that spontaneous generation was not possible. Loyal Darwinists, however, insisted on spontaneous generation, recognizing that it was the foundation upon which pure evolutionary theory rests. .i.Ernst Haeckel;, stated in 1876:
If we do not accept the hypothesis of spontaneous generation, then at this one point in the history of evolution we must have recourse to the miracle of a supernatural creation.9
The New Paradigm
The spontaneous generation debate heated up again in 1924 when Russian biochemist, .i.I.A. Oparin;, proposed that life had arisen from simpler molecules on the lifeless earth under much different atmospheric conditions than exist today.10 However, instead of life arising suddenly, as previous spontaneous-generation theories proposed, Oparin believed that it occurred over a very long period of time. 
In 1929 English biologist .i.J.B.S. Haldane; published a paper in which he proposed that ultraviolet light, acting on a primitive atmosphere, containing water, ammonia and methane, produced oceans with the consistency of a hot dilute soup containing the building blocks of life.11 
.i.Ernst Haeckel;, one of the chief proponents of Darwinism in the nineteenth century, had argued that although spontaneous generation was not observable under the current conditions on earth, it did take place in the past under unknown chemical conditions. Oparin and Haldane made the first serious proposals regarding those conditions. 
In 1952 .i.Harold Urey; noted that most of the planets in our solar system, except earth, have an atmosphere which contains little or no free oxygen.12 Furthermore, Urey knew that the building blocks of life are quickly destroyed if they are exposed to an environment containing oxygen.13 Therefore, he concluded that spontaneous generation must have occurred on the early earth with an atmosphere consisting mainly of hydrogen, ammonia, methane, water vapor, but little or no molecular oxygen. Lightning, volcanic eruptions, sunlight, and deep-oceanic volcanic vents are among the energy sources proposed to finance the necessary chemical reactions. It was presumed that the building blocks of life were made in the atmosphere and then gradually fell to earth eventually accumulating in the primeval ocean.
Despite absolutely no geological evidence for the existence of this .i.primeval soup;, the Oparin-Haldane-Urey theories became scientific dogma. These foundational assumptions have provided the framework for the modern theory of chemical evolution in the last forty years.
Stanley Millers Bombshell
In 1953 a graduate student named .i.Stanley Miller; set out to verify the Oparin-Haldane-Urey hypothesis with a simple but elegant experiment.14 The results of this experiment have been taught to every high school and college biology student for nearly four decades. 
Using a system of glass flasks, Miller attempted to simulate the early atmospheric conditions. He passed a mixture of boiling water, ammonia, methane and hydrogen through an electrical spark discharge. At the bottom of the apparatus was a trap to capture any molecules made by the reaction. This trap prevented the newly-formed chemicals from being destroyed by the next spark. Eventually, Miller was able to produce a mixture containing very simple amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. 
Miller drew on decades of knowledge of organic chemistry in setting up his experiment. The proportions of the various gases used, the actual apparatus, the intensity of the spark and the chemical trap, were all carefully adjusted to create maximum yield from the experiment. 
On the first attempt, after a week of electrical discharges in the reaction chamber, the sides of the chamber turned black and the liquid mixture turned a cloudy red. The predominant product was a gummy black substance made up of billions of carbon atoms strung together in what was essentially tar, a common nuisance in organic reactions.15 However, no amino acids used by living systems, or other building blocks of life, were produced on the first attempt. 
After rearranging the apparatus, the experiment produced two amino acids, glycine and alanine, the simplest amino acids found in living systems. If we search the remaining products, we find a number of simple amino acids, but in yields so low that their concentrations would be insignificant in a body of water (Table 1).
Regarding the products of the Miller-Urey experiment, evolutionist .i.Robert Shapiro; stated:
Let us sum up. The experiment performed by Miller yielded tar as its most abundant product....There are about fifty small organic compounds that are called building blocks.... Only two of these fifty occurred among the preferential Miller-Urey products.16
Table 1.  The Products of the Miller Experiment
Tar 	 									85%
Carboxylic acids not important to life 	13.0%
Glycine 									1.05%
Alanine 									0.85%
Glutamic acid								trace
Aspartic acid								trace
Valine										trace
Leucine									trace
Proline										trace
Serine										trace
Treonine									trace
In the past forty years, many scientists have repeated the work of Miller and Urey. Electrical sparks, heat, ultraviolet radiation, light, shock waves, and high energy chemical catalysts have been used in an attempt to create the building blocks of life.17 In general, when amino acids have been made, they occur in approximately the same proportion, with glycine and alanine predominating, as in the Millers experiment.
The Case of the Missing Letters
In the English language convention there are twenty-six letters that are used to write sentences, paragraphs, chapters, and books. These letters are strung together according to hundreds of predetermined rules. Anyone with a knowledge of those rules can understand the information conveyed by the sequence of letters. 
In all living systems there are a special set of four chemical letters, called nucleotides, which are used to write the information stored by the code of life, the Genetic Code. Millions of these nucleotides are strung together, end to end, in long chains, thus forming the .i.DNA; molecule (Figure 1). The instructions necessary to produce all the living structures on earth are written by the rules of the genetic code and carried by these chains of chemical letters. These chemical letters represent only a tiny part of the hardware that must arise by chance in order for spontaneous generation to occur. However, nucleotides are much more complex than the simple amino acids made by Miller and Urey, and would require much more chemical expertise to produce.

Figure 1.
Many claims have been made that nucleotides of DNA have been produced in such spark and soup experiments. However, after a careful review of the scientific literature, evolutionist .i.Robert Shapiro; stated that the nucleotides of DNA and RNA,
...have never been reported in any amount in such sources, yet a mythology has emerged that maintains the opposite....I have seen several statements in scientific sources which claim that proteins and nucleic acids themselves have been prepared...These errors reflect the operation of an entire belief system...The facts do not support this belief...Such thoughts may be comforting, but they run far ahead of any experimental validation.18 (Emphasis added).
After nearly four decades of trying, with the best equipment and the best minds in chemistry, not even the letters of the genetic code have been produced by random chemical processes.  If the letters cannot be produced by doctorate-level chemists, how can we logically assume that they arose by chance in a chemical quagmire?
A Troubled Paradigm
Stanley Millers experiment was seen by believers as virtual proof that organic chemicals, and ultimately life, could be produced by chance chemistry. It brought a greater measure of scientific respectability to the theory of spontaneous generation and evolutionary thought. Evolution, according to the purists, could now be taught as a virtual certainty. The impact of this experiment on the scientific community is expressed by evolutionist and astronomer Carl Sagan:
The Miller-Urey experiment is now recognized as the single most significant step in convincing many scientists that life is likely to be abundant in the cosmos.19
This opinion, however, is not universally held by evolutionists. With the advantage of three decades of hindsight, and extensive discoveries in molecular biology, evolutionist .i.Robert Shapiro; comments on the significance of the Miller-Urey experiments:
The very best Miller-Urey chemistry, as we have seen, does not take us very far along the path to a living organism. A mixture of simple chemicals, even one enriched in a few amino acids, no more resembles a bacterium than a small pile of real and nonsense words, each written on an individual scrap of paper, resembles the complete works of Shakespeare.20
After a careful examination of the Miller experiment, Shapiro recognized that the simple chemicals he produced are a far cry from the incredible complexity of a living cell. 
In the last 20 years a number of scientists have spoken out regarding the problems with the Haldane-Oparin paradigm. Most of the assumptions of the primordial atmosphere, even the existence of the primordial soup, have been seriously questioned by origins researchers. .i.Carl Woese;, of the University of Illinois expressed the inadequacy of the Oparin thesis:
The Oparin thesis has long ceased to be a productive paradigm: it no longer generates novel approaches to the problem....These symptoms suggest a paradigm whose course is run, one that is no longer a valid model of the true state of affairs.21
Lets look at some of the evidence that has threatened the Oparin-Haldane-Miller thesis.
The Myth of the Pre-biotic Atmosphere
The Oxygen Problem
The atmospheric conditions proposed by Oparin, Haldane and Urey were radically different from what presently exists. Because oxygen destroys the chemical building blocks of life, they speculated that the early earth had an oxygen-free atmosphere. However, in the last twenty years, evidence has surfaced that has convinced most atmospheric scientists that the early atmosphere contained abundant oxygen. 
In the 1970s .i.Apollo 16; astronauts discovered that water is broken down into oxygen and hydrogen gas in the upper atmosphere when it is bombarded by ultraviolet radiation. This process, called .i.photo dissociation;, is an efficient process which would have resulted in the production of large quantities of oxygen in a relatively short time. Studies by the astronauts revealed that this process is probably a major source of oxygen in our current atmosphere.
2 H2O + uv Radiation  H2 (hydrogen gas) + O2 (oxygen gas)
The assumption of an oxygen-free atmosphere has also been rejected on theoretical grounds. The ozone layer around planet earth consists of a thin but critical blanket of oxygen gas in the upper atmosphere. This layer of oxygen gas blocks deadly levels of ultraviolet radiation from the sun.22 Without oxygen in the early atmosphere, there could have been no ozone layer over the early earth. Without an .i.ozone; layer, all life on the surface of planet earth would face certain death from exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation. Furthermore, the chemical building blocks of proteins, RNA and DNA, would be quickly annihilated because ultraviolet radiation destroys their chemical bonds.23 It doesnt matter if these newly formed building blocks are in the atmosphere, on dry ground, or under water.24,25,26   
So we have a major dilemma. The products of the Miller-Urey experiments would be destroyed if oxygen was present, and they would be destroyed if it wasnt! This catch 22 has been noted by evolutionist and molecular biologist .i.Michael Denton;:
What we have then is a sort of Catch 22 situation. If we have oxygen we have no organic compounds, but if we dont we have none either.27
Even if the building blocks of life could survive the effects of intense ultraviolet radiation and form life spontaneously, the survival of any subsequent life forms would be very doubtful in the presence of such heavy ultraviolet light. Ozone must be present to protect any surface life from the deadly effects of ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
Finally, the assumption that there was no oxygen in the early atmosphere is not borne out by the geologic evidence. Geologists have discovered evidence of abundant oxygen content in the oldest known rocks on earth. Again, .i.Michael Denton;:
Ominously, for believers in the traditional organic soup scenario, there is no clear geochemical evidence to exclude the possibility that oxygen was present in the Earths atmosphere soon after the formation of its crust.28
All of this evidence supports the fact that there was abundant oxygen on the early earth.  
Ammonia and Methane Short Lived
The assumption of an atmosphere consisting mainly of ammonia, methane, and hydrogen, has also been seriously questioned. In the 1970s scientists concluded that ultraviolet radiation from the sun, as well as simple rainout, would eliminate ammonia and methane from the upper atmosphere in a very short time.29 In 1981, Atmospheric scientists from NASA concluded that:
the methane and ammonia-dominated atmosphere would have been very short lived, if it ever existed at all.30 
The Myth of the Pre-biotic Soup
During the last two decades, the notion of a primordial soup has not fared too well either. Studies of the atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation, and the dilutional effect of a large body of water, have convinced many scientists that the ocean could not have developed into the hot dilute soup that was envisioned by Darwin, Oparin, and Haldane. 
Oparin envisioned the production of cellular building blocks in the atmosphere as a result of lightning or ultraviolet radiation. Stanley Millers experiment attempted to validate this concept. Once produced, these chemicals would theoretically build up in the primordial oceans and combine to form the first living systems. However, since Millers experiments in 1953, it has been estimated that it would take up to two years for amino acids to fall from the atmosphere into the ocean.31 This is a problem because even small amounts of ultraviolet radiation would destroy the building blocks before they reached the oceans. Furthermore, as we saw earlier, lack of ozone would further expedite this destruction.32
Saved By The Trap!
A problem seldom noted by textbooks is that the chemical reactions that produced the amino acids in Millers experiments are reversible. That is, the same energy sources that cause the formation of the building blocks of life will also destroy those same building blocks unless they are removed from the environment where they were created. In fact, the building blocks of life are destroyed even more efficiently than they are created. This was foreseen by Miller and Urey, so they included a chemical trap to remove the newly formed chemicals before the next spark. Of course, this luxury would not be available on the early earth. 
These problems have convinced many origins researchers that the idea of a primordial soup is quite unlikely. .i.Michael Denton; comments on the lack of evidence for the primordial soup:
Rocks of great antiquity have been examined over the past two decades and in none of them has any trace of abiotically produced organic compounds been found....Considering the way the pre-biotic soup is referred to in so many discussions of the origin of life as an already established reality, it comes as something of a shock to realize that there is absolutely no positive evidence for its existence.33 (Emphasis added)
The Origin of DNA and Proteins
Up to this point weve discussed the origin of just the building blocks of living cells. The destructive effect of oxygen, ultraviolet radiation from the sun and the short duration of an optimal atmosphere for their production, makes it unlikely that significant quantities of viable nucleotides and amino acids could ever accumulate in the primitive ocean. However, even if they did accumulate in sufficient quantities, the next step is to explain how they combined to form the self-duplicating DNA molecule and the thousands of proteins found in the simplest living cells. For the materialistic scenario to be taken seriously, it must provide a plausible explanation for the origin of these enormous molecules without the introduction of biochemical know-how. 
The Problem of Chirality
One of the most difficult problems for the materialistic scenario on the origin of life is something called molecular chirality. The building blocks of .i.DNA; and proteins are molecules which can exist in both right and left-handed mirror-image forms (Figure 2). This handedness is called .i.chirality;.34,35 These mirror-image chemicals are referred to as dextrorotary (dextro-form) and levorotary (levo-form).36 
In all living systems the building blocks of the DNA and RNA exist exclusively in the right-handed form, while the amino acids in virtually all proteins in living systems, with very rare exception, occur only in the left-handed form.37
The dilemma for materialists is that all spark and soup-like experiments produce a mixture of 50% left (levo) and 50% right-handed (dextro) products.38,39 

Levo and Dextro Amino Acids
Figure 2.
 Such a mixture of dextro and levo amino acids is called a racemic mixture. Unfortunately, such mixtures are completely useless for the spontaneous generation of life.40
Complex molecules such as DNA and proteins are built by adding one building block at a time onto an ever-growing chain. In a primordial soup made up of equal proportions of right and left-handed building blocks, there is an equal probability at each step of adding either a right or left-handed building block.41,42 Consequently, it is a mathematical absurdity to propose that only right-handed nucleotides would be added time after time without a single left-handed one being added to a growing DNA molecule. Sooner or later an incorrect, left-handed nucleotide will be added. The same goes for proteins. Every time another amino acid is added to the growing chain of amino acids the chances are virtually certain that both right and left-handed amino acids will be added.
With unguided or undirected chemistry, a primordial ooze consisting of right and left-handed building blocks can only result in the production of DNA and proteins composed of a mixture of right and left-handed building blocks.  
This dilemma has enormous implications for the materialistic scenario.43 For a living cell to function properly, it is absolutely necessary for it to contain the correct three-dimensional structure in its DNA and proteins. 
This correct three-dimensional structure is in turn dependent upon proteins built from a pure mixture of left-handed amino acids and DNA built from right-handed nucleotides. Consequently, if even one nucleotide or amino acid with the incorrect handedness is inserted into a DNA or protein molecule, the three-dimensional structure will be annihilated and it will cease to function normally.
Enzymes: The Cells Miniature Factories
The importance of the three-dimensional structure of proteins can best be illustrated by the function of enzymes. Virtually all of the complex chemical reactions in living cells involve special proteins called enzymes. Enzymes act to speed up (catalyze) chemical reactions in biological systems. Enzymes are employed in the production of DNA, RNA, proteins, and nearly every chemical reaction in the cell. Digestion, thought, sight, and the function of nerves and muscles all require the use of enzymes. In fact, these activities would be impossible without them. 
Enzymatic reactions occur like lock and key mechanisms. An enzyme (the lock) has a highly specific three-dimensional shape which will only allow chemicals with the correct three-dimensional fit (the key) to bind and result in a chemical reaction (Figure 3).

Figure 3.
The three-dimensional structure of these protein enzymes (which is determined by the sequence of pure l-amino acids) must be preserved within a narrow range or these lock and key chemical reactions cannot occur. Consequently, a primordial soup consisting of equal portions of left and right-handed amino acids, which will only result in proteins containing equal portions of left and right-handed amino acids, is incapable of forming enzymes with the correct three-dimensional shapes and precise lock and key mechanisms. Therefore, a primordial soup of left and right-handed building blocks is completely incapable of forming life. 
Since all spark and soup experiments produce a 50/50 mix of  right and left-handed amino acids, chemists have tried to decipher how only left-handed amino acids became integrated into the proteins of living systems. For decades chemists have attempted to separate out a pure mixture of left-handed amino acids from a racemic mix by chance chemistry alone. Chance, or un-directed chemistry has, however, consistently proven to be an inadequate mechanism for the separation of the right and left-handed amino acid forms.44 So, how did it happen? Mathematically, random-chance would never select such an unlikely pure molecule out of a racemic primordial soup. 
The solution is simple, yet it has profound implications. To separate the two amino acid forms requires the introduction of biochemical expertise or know-how, which is the very antithesis of chance! However, biochemical expertise or know-how comes only from a mind. Without such know-how or intelligent guidance, the right and left-handed building blocks of life will never separate. Consequently, enzymes, with their lock and key mechanisms, and ultimately, life, are impossible!45
However, the existence of a mind or a Creator involved in the creation of life is anathema to the atheists scenario. But the volume of biochemical knowledge supports this fact: To produce pure mixtures of left-handed amino acids and right-handed  nucleotides, requires intelligent guidance. And since no human chemists were around before the origin of life on earth, the source of this intelligent guidance must have been extraterrestrial! 
Toxic Waste Wipes Out 
Spontaneous Generation
The major products made in Millers experiment were a mixture of tar and thousands of organic acids. This chemical junk, which comprised 98% of the material produced by Miller, is very similar to the chemical waste that the U.S. government is spending billions of dollars to remove from neighborhoods all around the country. Why are they removing these chemicals? Because they are toxic to humans. 
Organic acids, such as those produced by Miller, can damage .i.DNA;, causing cancer and other diseases. They also poison our enzymes by irreversibly binding to them.46 Any primordial soup would be filled with these toxic products and would quickly and efficiently prevent the functioning of DNA, RNA, and proteins. The result: death! In fact, it is unlikely that any currently living cell on earth could survive in the chemical environment produced by Millers experiment.47 Considering the toxicity of the primordial soup, it is perhaps the last place on earth that life might arise.48 
H20 Washes Up 
Spontaneous Generation
We noted previously that DNA and proteins are built by adding one building block at a time onto an ever-lengthening chain. With the addition of each amino acid or nucleotide, a molecule of water is released. This is called a condensation reaction and is fully reversible, i.e., it can proceed in either direction as indicated by the arrows in figure 4.

Figure 4.
In previous sections we have seen that neither air nor land are safe havens for the newly formed building blocks of life because of their certain destruction by oxygen or intense UV radiation. So believers in spontaneous generation have concluded that the first life forms may have arisen near a deep sea volcanic vent, safe from oxygen and UV radiation. Although a water environment may seem like a safe place for the formation of life, it is the release of a water molecule in the above reaction that creates one of the most difficult problems for the theory of spontaneous generation.
Every first-year chemistry student is taught that reversible chemical reactions will never proceed in a direction that produces a product that is already present in excess amounts in the reaction vessel.49 The production of DNA and proteins from their building blocks results in the production of a large number of water molecules. A problem for the oceanic vent theory (or any water based primordial soup theory) is that there is already an abundance of water. Consequently, the reaction above will never proceed in a direction which produces more water. In fact, the laws of chemistry and thermodynamics demand that the reaction go in the opposite direction! Therefore, in a watery solution containing the building blocks of life, the overwhelming majority of these building blocks would be unbonded. As a result, a watery environment is perhaps the last place that long chains of amino acids or nucleotides would form.50
Equilibrium-The Villain of the Plot
There is one final hurdle that must be successfully cleared if the materialists scenario on the origin of life is to have credibility. This is the problem of .i.chemical equilibrium;. The notion of equilibrium is one with which you are all familiar, even if youve never taken a chemistry course. In any broth or solution we notice that there is the tendency for the materials to become evenly distributed with time. This tendency is called the development of equilibrium.51 
A simple example will help us to understand. If a drop of red dye is put into a container of water the dye particles gradually disperse throughout the solution until the entire solution turns a dilute red color. The larger the volume of the solvent (i.e., the water in our dye experiment), the more dilute will be the solution once the dye particles have become evenly distributed. This dilutional effect is irreversibly tied to the arrow of time. As time advances, as predicted by the Second Law, the dye particles become evenly distributed until the solution reaches a state of chemical equilibrium.52
As we saw previously, the chemical reactions leading to the formation of .i.DNA; and proteins are reversible. This means that the building blocks of DNA and proteins are broken off of the chain just as easily as they are added. Consequently, the building blocks of life, if they survived the effects of oxygen and UV radiation, would constantly be combining and coming apart in the primordial soup. This combining and coming apart of chemical building blocks proceeds until a state of equilibrium is reached. In the case of amino acids and nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA and proteins will be predominantly unbonded when the solution is at equilibrium.53,54
Since the natural tendency for the building blocks of life is to disperse and remain un-bonded, the question materialists must answer is how did the building blocks of life become bonded and stay bonded in a primordial soup which is steadily progressing towards equilibrium? 
In living systems enzymes are programmed to accomplish this feat by extracting and utilizing energy from the environment to synthesize and preserve .i.DNA; and proteins.55 Consequently, in this capacity enzymes fulfill the definition of a machine or an engine, as defined by Nobel Laureate .i.Jaques Monod;  a purposeful (teleonomic) aggregate of matter that uses energy to perform work. 
In the absence of such molecular machinery (i.e.,enzymes), the reversibility of these chemical reactions ensures that any building blocks which may have become bonded will rapidly become unbonded in a watery environment unless they are removed from the solution in equilibrium.56,57 However, removing the building blocks from equilibrium requires a mechanism or a metabolic machine (which do not arise by chance). 
.i.Harold Blum; dealt with this very dilemma. He recognized that the production of proteins or DNA from a solution of unbonded building blocks required a mechanism or metabolic motor that can capture free energy from the environment, then use it to remove the building blocks from equilibrium, i.e. keep them bonded:
...If proteins were reproduced as they must have been, if living systems were to evolve free energy has to be supplied. The source of this free energy is a fundamental problem we must eventually face....the fact remains that no appreciable amounts of polypeptides [proteins] would form unless there were some factor which altered the equilibrium greatly in their favor.58 
By altering the equilibrium greatly in their favor, Blum means allowing them to stay bonded. However, inanimate matter contains no mechanism, machines, or biochemical know-how that can extract free energy from the environment and store or preserve the bonded building blocks before they break down again. 
Therefore, the dilemma for the materialist is explaining the origin of the first such metabolic machine by chance. In practice and in theory, machines are never the result of chance. They are the result of design.59,60 This fact is not only intuitive, but it has been verified by the overwhelming body of experimental science. 
.i.A.E. Wilder-Smith; addresses this problem of the origin of the first metabolic motor:
What Dr. Blum is saying is: how was the motor to extract the energy from the environment built before life processes had arisen to build it? Once a motor (enzyme metabolic system) is present, it can easily supply the free energy necessary to build more and more motors, that is, to reproduce. But the basic problem is: How do we account for the building of the first complex enzymatic protein metabolic motor to supply energy for reproduction and other cell needs....The Creationist believes that God synthesized non-living matter into living organisms and thus provided the motors which werethen capable of immediately extracting energy from their environment to build more motors for reproduction. This view isthus perfectly sound scientifically and avoids the hopeless impasseof the materialistic Darwinists in trying to account for the designand building of the first necessarily highly complex metabolicmotors by random processes. Once the motor has been designed,fabricated, and is running, the life processes work perfectly well onthe principles of the known laws of thermodynamics...61
So the net of this dilemma is that intelligent guidance is required to create a metabolic motor which will synthesize and preserve the chains of DNA and proteins. Such guidance comes only from a mind, and not from inanimate inorganic matter! 
Time: The Unlikely Villain
When confronted with the problem of equilibrium, most scientific materialists will appeal to the magic ingredient of time. In chapter one we saw this appeal by Nobel Laureate, .i.George Wald;:
Time is in fact the hero of the plot. Given so much time the impossible becomes possible, the possible probable, and the probable virtually certain. One has only to wait: Time itself performs the miracles.62
However, Dr. Blum, who is a materialist, points out that Walds faith in the miraculous ingredient of time is mere wishful thinking. Prolonged time periods, he asserts, actually worsen the dilemma:
I think if I were rewriting this chapter [on the origin of life] completely, I should want to change the emphasis somewhat. I should want to play down still more the importance of the great amount of time available for highly improbable events to occur. One may take the view that the greater the time elapsed the greater should be the approach to equilibrium, the most probable state, and it seems that this ought to take precedence in our thinking over the idea that time provides the possibility for the occurrence of the highly improbable.63  (Emphasis added)
According to Dr. Blum, the magic bullet of time does not increase the likelihood that chains of DNA or proteins will form by chance chemistry. In fact, according to Dr. Blum, increasing the time factor actually ensures that any primordial soup would consist of predominantly unbonded amino acids and nucleotides!
The Chicken or the Egg?
Any discussion of the origin of life would not be complete without a look at the greatest paradox of all: What came first, DNA or the proteins essential for the production of DNA?
Since the structure of DNA was deciphered in 1953, biologists have discovered that the process of duplicating DNA requires as many as twenty specific protein enzymes. These enzymes function to unwind, un-zip, copy, and rewind the DNA molecule. There are even enzymes that screen and correct for copying errors! 
The instructions for the production of all proteins, including these enzymes, are in turn stored on the DNA molecule. So which came first: The DNA molecule or the proteins necessary to make DNA? You cant make DNA without highly specific proteins. But you cant make proteins unless you have a system in place to code for and build those proteins in the first place. And that means DNA.
.i.Harold Blum; recognized this catch 22 when he stated:
...The riddle seems to be: How, when no life existed, didsubstances come into being which, today, are absolutelyessential to living systems, yet which can only be formedby those systems? ...A number of major properties are essential to livingsystems as we see them today, the origin of any of whichfrom a random system is difficult enough to conceive, letalone the simultaneous origin of all.64 
.i.Robert Shapiro; also commented on this dilemma:
Genes and enzymes are linked together in a living cell  two interlocked systems, each supporting the other. It is difficult to see how either could manage alone. Yet if we are to avoid invoking either a Creator or a very large improbability, we must accept that one occurred before the other in the origin of life. But which one was it? We are left with the ancient  riddle: Which came first, the chicken or the egg?65 
The simultaneous origin of DNA, RNA, and the proteins necessary to produce them is, according to Blum and Shapiro, very difficult to conceive. In fact, as we will see next, it is a mathematical impossibility.
The Odds
During the last several decades a number of prestigious scientists have attempted to calculate the mathematical probability of the random-chance origin of life. The results of their calculations reveal the enormity of the dilemma faced by materialists.
In the 1950s .i.Harold Blum; estimated the probability of just a single protein arising spontaneously from a primordial soup. Equilibrium and the reversibility of biochemical reactions eventually led Blum to state:
The spontaneous formation of a polypeptide of the size of the smallest known proteins seems beyond all probability. This calculation alone presents serious objection to the idea that all living matter and systems are descended from a single protein molecule which was formed as a chance act.66
In the 1970s British astronomer .i.Sir Frederick Hoyle; set out to calculate the mathematical probability of the spontaneous origin of life from a primordial soup environment. Applying the laws of chemistry, mathematical probability and thermodynamics, he calculated the odds of the spontaneous generation of the simplest known free-living life form on earth  a bacterium. 
Hoyle and his associates knew that the smallest conceivable free-living life form needed at least 2,000 independent functional proteins in order to accomplish cellular metabolism and reproduction. Starting with the hypothetical primordial soup he calculated the probability of the spontaneous generation of just the proteins of a single amoebae.67 He determined that the probability of such an event is one chance in ten to the 40 thousandth power, i.e., 1 in 1040,000. Prior to this project, Hoyle was a believer in the spontaneous generation of life. This project, however, apparently changed his opinion 180 degrees. 
Mathematicians tell us that if an event has a probability which is less likely than one chance in 1050, then that event is mathematically impossible. Such an event, if it were to occur, would be considered a miracle. 
Consider this. To win a state lottery you have about 1 chance in ten million (107). The odds of winning the state lottery every single week of your life from age 18 to age 99 is 1 chance in 4.6 x10 29,120. Therefore, the odds of winning the state lottery every week consecutively for eighty years is more likely than the spontaneous generation of just the proteins of an amoebae!
In his calculations Hoyle assumed that the primordial soup consisted only of left-handed amino acids. As we noted before, spark and soup-type experiments always yield a 50/50 mix of left and right-handed building blocks. Hoyle knew that if the soup consisted of equal portions of right and left-handed amino acids then mathematical probability of the origin of pure left-handed proteins would be exactly zero! 
After completing his research, Hoyle stated that the probability of the spontaneous generation of a single bacteria, is about the same as the probability that a tornado sweeping through a junk yard could assemble a 747 from the contents therein.68
.i.Hoyle; also stated:
The likelihood of the formation of life from inanimate matter is one to a number with 40 thousand naughts [zeros] after it. It is enough to bury Darwin and the whole theory of evolution. There was no primeval soup, neither on this planet nor on any other, and if the beginnings of life were not random they must therefore have been the product of purposeful intelligence.69 (Emphasis added)
Hoyles calculations may seem impressive, but they dont even begin to approximate the difficulty of the task. He only calculated the probability of the spontaneous generation of the proteins in the cell. He did not calculate the chance formation of the DNA, RNA, nor the cell wall that holds the contents of the cell together.
A more realistic estimate for spontaneous generation has been made by .i.Harold Morowitz;, a Yale University physicist.70 Morowitz imagined a broth of living bacteria that were super-heated so that all the complex chemicals were broken down into their basic building blocks. After cooling the mixture, he concluded that the odds of a single bacterium re-assembling by chance is one in 10100,000,000,000. This number is so large that it would require several thousand blank books just to write it out. To put this number into perspective, it is more likely that you and your entire extended family would win the state lottery every week for a million years than for a bacterium to form by chance!
In his book, OriginsA Skeptics Guide to the Creation of Life on Earth, .i.Robert Shapiro; gives a very realistic illustration of how one might estimate the odds of the spontaneous generation of life. Shapiro begins by allowing one billion years (5 x 1014 minutes) for spontaneous biogenesis. Next he notes that a simple bacterium can make a copy of itself in twenty minutes, but he assumes that the first life was much simpler. So he allows each trial assembly to last one minute, thus providing 5 x 1014 trial assemblies in 1 billion years to make a living bacterium. Next he allows the entire ocean to be used as the reaction chamber. If the entire ocean volume on planet earth were divided into reaction flasks the size of a bacterium we would have 1036 separate reaction flasks. He allows each reaction flask to be filled with all the necessary building blocks of life. Finally, each reaction chamber is allowed to proceed through one-minute trial assemblies for one billion years. The result is that there would be 1051 tries available in 1 billion years. According to Morowitz we need 10100,000,000,000 trial assemblies!
Regarding the probabilities calculated by Morowitz, .i.Robert Shapiro; wrote:
The improbability involved in generating even one bacterium is so large that it reduces all considerations of time and space to nothingness. Given such odds, the time until the black holes evaporate and the space to the ends of the universe would make no difference at all. If we were to wait, we would truly be waiting for a miracle.71
Regarding the origin of life .i.Francis Crick;, winner of the Nobel Prize in biology, stated in 1982:
An honest man, armed with all the knowledge available to us now, could only state that in some sense, the origin of life appears at the moment to be almost a miracle, so many are the conditions which would have had to have been satisfied to get it going.72 
Regarding the probability of spontaneous generation, Harvard University biochemist and Nobel Laureate, .i.George Wald; stated in 1954:
One has to only contemplate the magnitude of this task to concede that the spontaneous generation of a living organism is impossible. Yet we are hereas a result, I believe, of spontaneous generation.73
In this incredible statement by Wald we see that his adherence to the materialists paradigm is independent of the evidence. Walds belief in the impossible can only be explained by faith: ...the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen.74
Despite these incredible odds, and the seemingly insurmountable problems we have discussed, spontaneous generation is taught as a fact from grammar school to university. In fact, NASA scientists reported to the press in 1991 their opinion that life arose spontaneously not once, but multiple times, because previous attempts were wiped out by cosmic catastrophes! 
The reason for this fanatical adherence to spontaneous generation is eloquently pointed out by .i.George Wald;:
When it comes to the origin of life there are only two possibilities: Creation or spontaneous generation. There is no third way. Spontaneous generation was disproved one hundred years ago, but that leads us to only one other conclusion, that of supernatural creation. We cannot accept that on philosophical grounds; therefore, we choose to believe the impossible: That life arose spontaneously by chance!75 (Emphasis added)
According to Wald, its not a matter of the evidence, its a matter of philosophy! Like George Wald, many people do not like, and cannot accept the alternative: that all life on earth was created by a transcendent Creator. So, as Wald said, they are willing to believe the impossible, in order to cling to their belief that the universe is a closed system. A system that has no room for such a Creator. 
Man A Machine!!   Paley Vindicated
When .i.William Paley; put forth his watchmaker argument in 1818, the force of his argument was weakened by .i.David Humes; assertion that the machine analogy was only superficial. Hume argued that the analogy between machines and living systems could not be shown to extend to the deepest (molecular) level. Therefore, according to Hume, the analogy was invalid and there was no need for a designer for biological systems. 
During the time of .i.Darwin ;and .i.Hume;, the living cell was viewed as a mere blob of amorphous unorganized protoplasm. Consequently, Humes assertion that the cell was not machine-like seemed reasonable. For nearly 150 years Paleys watchmaker argument was felt to be fatally weakened by the reasoning of Hume. 
However, the astonishing discoveries in molecular biology during the last 40 years have finally and unequivocally demonstrated that living systems are, in fact, machines  even to the deepest, molecular level! From the tiniest enzyme to the most complex organ systems found in man, Paleys machine analogy is confirmed.
At the enzymatic level we see an eerie resemblance to the design and operation of chemical factories. At the organ level we find hardware of an unimaginable complexity and ingenuity. In our five senses we find sensory receivers made of multiple components, each machine-like, the operation of which is absolutely necessary for each sense (taste, sight, smell, hearing, touch) to function properly. In the function of the human heart we see an incredibly efficient and durable hydraulic pump, the likes of which no engineer has imagined. Finally, in the structure of the human brain we find a computer 1000 times faster than a Cray supercomputer with more connections than all the computers, phone systems and electronic appliances on planet earth! 
In each of these systems, at every level, we find machine-like structures which are truly teleonomic (purposeful) aggregates of matter, each executing its role in a pre-programmed manner. 
In 1985 evolutionist .i.Michael Denton; made this astonishing admission regarding Paleys machine analogy:
It has only been over the past twenty years with the molecular biological revolution and with the advances in cybernetic and computer technology that Humes criticism has been finally invalidated and the analogy between organisms and machines has at last become convincing....In every direction the biochemist gazes, as he journeys through this weird molecular labyrinth, he sees devices and appliances reminiscent of our own twentieth-century world of advanced technology. In the atomic fabric of life we have found a reflection of our own technology. We have seen a world as artificial as our own and as familiar as if we had held up a mirror to our own machines...Paley was not only right in asserting the existence of an analogy between life and machines, but was also remarkably prophetic in guessing that the technological ingenuity realized in living systems is vastly in excess of anything yet accomplished by man.76  (Emphasis added)
The implication of vindicating Paleys machine analogy were also noted by Denton:
If we are to assume that living things are machines for the purposes of description, research and analysis, and for the purposes of rational and objective debate, as argued by Michael Polyani and Monod among many others, there can be nothing logically inconsistent, as Paley would have argued, in extending the usefulness of the analogy to include an explanation for their origin.77
Since machines need a designer and since living systems possess appliances reminiscent of our own twentieth-century world of advanced technology it is logically consistent to assert that such appliances (the mechanisms in living systems) must, according to Denton, require a designer as well!
Consequently, according to Denton:
The conclusion may have religious implication.78
Finally, consider this provocative statement by .i.Hoyle; and Wickramasinghe:
The speculations of The Origin of Species turned out to be wrong...It is ironic that the scientific facts throw Darwin out, but leave William Paley, a figure of fun to the scientific world for more than a century, still in the tournament with a chance of being the ultimate winner.79 
If the most knowledgeable chemists using the most up to date equipment cannot create machines as complex as a single amoebae, is it credible to assert that chance, which is the antithesis of intelligence or know-how could do so? I think not.
The Emperor is nakedand many in the scientific establishment are beginning to suspect!
1 Of necessity this chapter is somewhat technical. A knowledge of chemistry is not, however, necessary to grasp the major points. After this chapter its down hill.
2 William Paley, Natural Theology on Evidences and Attributes of the Deity, 18  ed., Lackington, Allen and Co. (1818).
3  David Hume, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, Fontana Library Ed. Collins, (1779).
4 Michael Denton, Evolution: A Theory in Crisis, Adler and Adler, 1986, 250.
5For a detailed discussion on Jaques Monods theories see Wilder-Smith, A.E., The Natural Sciences Know Nothing of Evolution, The Word for Today Publishers, Costa Mesa CA. 1981. 1-800-282-WORD.
6 These chemicals include DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid), RNA (Ribonucleic Acid), proteins, fats, sugars, vitamins and many others. Altogether, there are about fifty organic molecules required to manufacture the simplest living cells.
7  J.D. Watson, and F.H.C. Crick, Structure of Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid. Nature (1953) 171:737-738.
8 This code or language convention is the same for all life on earth, whether a bacterium, a man, or a blue whale. The difference between a man and a whale is the software programs that are written by that code of life which is mutual to them both. To put it another way, the English language convention is common to both novels and short poems. The difference between the two forms of writing is how the English language convention is applied to each style.
9 Ernst Haekel, The History of Creation. vol 1:348. New York, Appleton.
10  I.A. Oparin, 1924. Proiskhozhdenie Zhizni , Izd. Moskovski Rabochi, Moskow . Reproduced in English in Origins of Life- The Central Concepts, Edited by Deamer and Fleischaker. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Boston. 1994.
11 J.B.S. Haldane, Rationalist Annual 148:3-10, (1929)
12 Free oxygen refers to molecular oxygen in the form of O2 or O3.
13 Harold C. Urey, The Planets Their Origin and Development, (Yale University Press, 1952). 
14 Stanley Miller, Science, Vol 117, (1953).pp. 528-529.
15 The remaining 15% of the reaction products consisted of thirteen organic chemicals in concentrations ranging from .25% to 4%. All of the thirteen products were in a class of chemicals known as carboxylic acids. Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins are one type of carboxylic acid. There are an unlimited number of carboxylic acids that could be made. The smallest carboxylic acid possible is formic acid, with only one carbon atom, and in fact, was the most prominent carboxylic acid made with a yield of 4%. This acid is unimportant in most life forms, although it is found in ant venom! Three other carboxylic acids, with three carbon atoms, but unimportant to life, were made with a yield of 2.7%.
16  Robert Shapiro, Origins-A Skeptics Guide to the Creation of Life on Earth, (1986), pg. 105.
17This body of work is detailed in the book The Mystery of Life's Origin. C. Thaxton, W. Bradley, R. Olsen , Chapter 3.
18 Shapiro, op. cit., 108-109.
19 Shapiro, op cit., 99.
20 Shapiro, op. cit., 116.
21Shapiro, op. cit., 114.
22 Ozone, which consists of three oxygen atoms bonded together, is made when oxygen in the atmosphere interacts with ultraviolet radiation from the sun. O2 + Ultraviolet Light  Ozone (O3).
23Eventually, exposure to ultraviolet radiation will break down amino acids down into tar, water, methane, and ammonia.
24Ultraviolet radiation of this intensity would wipe out all newly formed building blocks even to a depth of ten meters under the water.
25 It has been estimated that in order to form an effective ozone layer, the atmospheric oxygen content would need to be at least 10% of the amount in our current atmosphere. However, this same concentration of oxygen is also enough to quickly and effectively wipe out those same building blocks. Ultraviolet light breaks the chemical bonds of complex molecules such as amino acids and nucleotides, making them useless for the spontaneous generation of life.
26C. Thaxton, W. Bradley, R. Olsen, The Mystery of Life's Origin; Chapter  3.
27Denton, op. cit., 262.
28 Denton, op. cit., 261.
29 Rainout means the effect that simple rain would have on the concentrations of atmospheric methane and ammonia. In a very short time, rain alone would eliminate most of these substances from the early atmosphere.
30 Joel Levine, and Tommy Augustson, The Pre biological Paleoatmosphere: Stability and Composition. Presented at the 6th College Park Colloquium, October 1981. See Origins of Life, Volume 12 (1982), pp. 245-259.
31 Organic building blocks would be destroyed even if it only took a few minutes for them to fall from the atmosphere to the ocean. Once in the ocean, the intense ultraviolet radiation would destroy them up to a depth of ten meters.
32 Upon reaching the water, chemicals produced in the atmosphere would need to combine to form DNA, RNA, and proteins. To form the first cell, these chemicals would need to be concentrated and then covered by the protective covering called the cell wall. A serious problem for such a scenario is the normal dilutional effect of water. Chemicals tend to disperse, causing watery solutions to become very diluted with the progression of time. The rate of destruction of unprotected building blocks, combined with this dilutional effect, would greatly decrease the concentration of the soup envisioned by Oparin and Haldane.

33 Denton, op. cit., pg. 261.
34 Molecular chirality results when a carbon atom is attached to four different chemical groups or substituents. The result is molecules that are mirror images of one another, just as our two hands are mirror images of one another.
35 The amino acids made by Millers experiment were among the simplest in nature, containing only one asymmetric carbon. More complex molecules, such as nucleotides, may contain more than one asymmetric carbon. With the addition of each asymmetric carbon the number of possible molecules (called isomers) doubles.
36 The terms dextrorotory and levorotary refer to the direction these chemicals rotate the plane of polarized light. A solution of  dextrorotory amino acids rotates the plane of polarized light to the right while levorotary solutions to the left.
37 The Penicillin fungus makes d-amino acids to poison potential bacterial invaders. Strychnine, an obvious poison, is also a d-amino acid and is toxic to cellular enzymes.
38 For 80 years chemists have been trying to synthesize optically pure mixtures of amino acids in the lab using stochastic chemical processes. However, this has never been accomplished. According to physical chemists, it is impossible because the two isomers have identical entropy states.
39 Miller and Urey acknowledged that the chemical makeup of their experiment consisted of equal portions of left-handed and right-handed amino acids.
40 Racemates are not optically active and in the laboratory always result in proteins which contain a 50/50 mix of levo and dextro amino acids or nucleotides.
41In practice, laboratory experiments have shown that right-handed building blocks have a slightly greater affinity, or attraction, for other right-handed building blocks. Therefore, at each step in the addition of another building block, there is a 3/7 chance that  the next one added will be the same optical isomer as the one previously added.
42 The smallest known free living life forms, bacteria, have about 12,000,000 nucleotides in their DNA. If we were to calculate the odds of adding twelve million successive right-handed nucleotides to the growing chain, without a single left handed one being added, it would be .5 raised to the 12 millionth power, (.512,000,000)!
43The materialist is left with a limited number of options. Either the first life forms had a mix of right and left-handed building blocks in their DNA and proteins, or a racemic primordial soup (which always results from Miller-Urey type experiments), somehow defied the laws of mathematics and gave rise to pure mixtures of left-handed amino acids and right handed nucleotides. The first option (racemic life) is impossible because a three-dimensional structure of enzymes and proper functioning is not possible with a mix of dextro and levo amino acids. The second option is a mathematical absurdity.
44 Some have suggested that certain clay or crystal surfaces might select one isomer over another and, therefore, purify a mixture of like handed (optically pure) molecules. However, this argument ignores the fact that the entropy states of the two isomers are identical and are very difficult to separate. Secondly, experimental chemistry shows that it is impossible to get pure mixtures of one or the other isomer this way. Irregularities in the structure of the clay or crystal surfaces would result in the accumulation of both isomers, i.e., contaminants. Since this is so, if even one incorrect isomer gets integrated into a protein or nucleic acid, its 3-D structure would be destroyed.
45 A minority of chemists have suggested that perhaps life started out with racemic proteins and later only the levo amino acids were selected out. However, there is no known mechanism whereby chance chemistry can accomplish  such a selection process. Furthermore, the structure of proteins is so tightly coupled to function that the intermediates between the racemic proteins and the optically pure proteins (consisting of only levo amino acids) would not be functional. In fact, the removal of even one amino acid often destroys the structure and function of a protein. To change from a racemic protein to an optically pure one would mean the substitution of 50% of the amino acid residues.
46Most  chemicals that are poisonous to plants, animals or humans kill their victims by binding specifically and irreversibly to the active site of metabolic enzymes.
47Another devastating fact regarding the toxic waste produced by spark and soup experiments is that these chemicals, composed mainly of carboxylic acids, bind to amino acids far more readily than amino acids bind to each other! Therefore, it is incredulous to conclude that pure, uncontaminated mixtures of amino acids or nucleotides could combine, or be selected out by chance, from such a mixture of chemical junk.  
48 Anyone that has worked in a biochemistry lab knows that the smallest amount of impurity in the reaction vessels will halt the activity and efficiency of enzymes. In fact, the presence of common ocean water is dirty enough to halt the function of free enzymes in such an experiment. Therefore, even the ocean is an unlikely place for enzymes and life to evolve.
49This is called the law  of mass action. 
50 Recognizing the dilemma that these reversible condensation reactions pose, some have proposed that the origin of life occurred near super hot oceanic volcanic vents. Next to such vents the temperatures can reach thousands of degrees, thus causing a relative decrease in the amount of water. This would theoretically drive the condensation reaction toward the production of post-cursors or proteins. The flaw in this argument is that heat (110 degrees Fahrenheit or greater) quickly and efficiently breaks down (denatures) proteins rendering them structurally and functionally incompetent.
51A solution is said to be at equilibrium when it reaches a state of greatest entropy and lowest energy state.
52 In a solution that is in equilibrium there will always be local areas where the dissolved particles may, for a transient period, not be evenly distributed. That is, there will be areas of decreased entropy (increased order). These exceptions are transient since they are in equilibrium with the surrounding particles.
53  The Second Law, coupled with the fact that these condensation reactions are reversible, drives the solution in the net direction of a mixture containing predominantly unbonded building blocks. According to thermodynamic calculations by Harold Blum (Times Arrow and Evolution), in a watery solution  about 1% of amino acids will exist as dipeptides (two bonded amino acids), .001% as tripeptides and less than one in 10-20  will exist in a chain of ten amino acids. Those that do bond will be quickly unbonded when a collision with water occurs unless these unlikely, reduced entropy molecules are stored and kept away from the solution in equilibrium.
54 In a primordial soup, random molecular movement would cause the building blocks of life to diffuse away from their site of origin. Just as concentrated red dye will disperse when dropped into water, the building blocks of DNA and protein will also diffuse until equilibrium is reached. At this point there would be billions of water molecules for every unbonded building block. This process, along with the rapid breakdown of nucleotides and amino acids by oxygen and UV radiation, makes it almost impossible to imagine how, in a watery environment, biochemical precursors could combine, stay combined and continue to build upon each other in the face of the concept of chemical equilibrium. 
55 Enzymes are able to function as metabolic machines which extract free energy from the environment (e.g. photosynthesis) and use this energy to overcome the effect of equilibrium in the synthesis and preservation of DNA and proteins. During the synthesis of proteins, enzymes first activate or energize amino acids (using ATP) and allow them to bond and stay bonded. This enormously complex process requires a specific transfer RNA molecule for the activation and bonding of each of the twenty amino acids used in living systems. This energy is then used to overcome the effect of equilibrium in the preservation of DNA and proteins in a state of increased order. In effect, enzymes capture the building blocks, bind them together, essentially removing them from the solution, and then preserve them in their bonded state. However, these cellular machines or mechanisms (enzymes) are designed to store and maintain these deviations from equilibrium. The problem for the materialist is to explain how such deviations from equilibrium were stored in the absence of any mechanism or system capable of doing this. Inorganic matter possesses neither the know-how nor the mechanism to store the decreased entropy found in the chains of DNA and protein. 
56To overcome the effect of equilibrium, many scientists will unwittingly assert that the addition of enough energy into a thermodynamically open system (such as the earth) will cause the system to stray from equilibrium and allow the accumulation or storage of corners of increased order (or negative entropy). It is true that the introduction of more energy causes an increase in the number of chemical collisions and a corresponding increase in the number of unlikely polymers (consisting of two, three, four or more bonded building blocks). However, in order for DNA or protein synthesis to occur, these deviations from equilibrium must be stored or preserved. If they (the polymers) are not stored, then collisions with water, which are constantly occurring, will just as easily break down the randomly-formed polymers. Furthermore, the addition of long time periods simply acts to drive even localized corners of decreased entropy to a state of equilibrium, i.e. predominantly unbonded building blocks.
57 Crystals are often presented as examples of structures that display reduced entropy, and  yet are at equilibrium. However, the order that we see in a crystal is a secondary order which is dependent upon the order already present in the atoms. 
58 Harold F. Blum,.Times Arrow and Evolution. (2d ed., Princeton, N.J. Princeton University Press, 1955).
59Machines result when information (know-how) is intelligently and deliberately combined with the natural law in matter for the purpose of creating a purposeful mechanism.
60 For a detailed discussion on the origin of machines see The Scientific Alternative to Neo-Darwinian Evolutionary Theory: Information Sources and Structures. A.E. Wilder-Smith,  The Word for Today Publishers, Costa Mesa, Ca. 92628  (Phone 1-800-282-WORD).
61 A.E. Wilder-Smith, Mans Origin Mans Destiny, (1993 English ed.) The Word for Today Publishers, (Phone 1-800-282-WORD).pp. 45-46.
62 George Wald, The Origin of Life, Scientific American 191:48 (May 1954).
63Blum, op. cit., 178a.
64 Blum, op. cit. 17.
65 Shapiro, op. cit. 135.
66 Harold F. Blum, Times Arrow and Evolution (2d ed., Princeton, N.J. Princeton University Press, 1955).
67 In Hoyles experiment he assumed a primordial soup that contained all of the twenty essential amino acids.
68Nature, vol. 294:105, November 12, 1981.
69 Nature, vol. 294:105, November 12, 1981.
70 Harold Morowitz, Energy Flow in Biology (New York; Academic Press, 1968).
71 Shapiro, op. cit.,  128
72 Francis Crick, Life Itself-Its Origin and Nature, Futura, London, (1982). 
73 George Wald, The Origin of Life, Scientific American 191:48 (May 1954).
74 See the New Testament, Hebrews 11:1 
75 George Wald, The Origin of Life, Scientific American (May 1954).
76Denton, op cit., pg. 340.
77Ibid., 341.
78Ibid., 341.
79 Sir Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe, Evolution from Space: A Theory of Cosmic Creationism (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981), pp. 96-97. 


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